Review: piezoelectric materials for energy harvesters—recent developments and applications

1. Brown TW, Bischof-Niemz T, Blok K, Breyer C, Lund H, Mathiesen BV (2018) Response to ‘Burden of proof: a comprehensive review of the feasibility of 100% renewable-electricity systems.’ Renew Sustain Energy Rev 92:834–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.11310.1016/j.rser.2018.04.113 ↗

2. Wei C, Jing X (2017) A comprehensive review on vibration energy harvesting: modelling and realization. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 74:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.07310.1016/j.rser.2017.01.073 ↗

3. Selvan KV, Ali MSM (2016) Micro-scale energy harvesting devices: review of methodological performances in the last decade. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 54:1035–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.04610.1016/j.rser.2015.10.046 ↗

4. Koohi-Fayegh S, Rosen MA (2020) A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments. J Energy Storage 27:101047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.10104710.1016/j.est.2019.101047 ↗

5. Mahapatra SD, Mohapatra PC, Aria AI, Christie G, Mishra YK, Hofmann S, Thakur VK (2021) Piezoelectric materials for energy harvesting and sensing applications: roadmap for future smart materials. Adv Sci (Weinh) 8(17):e2100864. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.20210086410.1002/advs.202100864 ↗

6. Pan X, Wu Y, Wang Y, Zhou G, Cai H (2024) Mechanical energy harvesting based on the piezoelectric materials: recent advances and future perspectives. Chem Eng J 497:154249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.15424910.1016/j.cej.2024.154249 ↗

7. He G, Zhang Y, Peng C, Li X (2013) Surface morphology and ferroelectric properties of compositional gradient PZT thin films prepared by chemical solution deposition process. Appl Surf Sci 283:532–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.06.14010.1016/j.apsusc.2013.06.140 ↗

8. Dewan A, Ay SU, Karim MN, Beyenal H (2014) Alternative power sources for remote sensors: a review. J Power Sources 245:129–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.08110.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.081 ↗

9. Su L, Li Z, Cao F, Liu X, Fang X (2022) Tailoring the interface assembly of mesoporous TiO2 on BTO film toward high-performance UV photodetectors. J Mater Chem C 10(23):9035–9043. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2tc01559e10.1039/d2tc01559e ↗

10. Pan H, Zeng Y, Shen Y, Lin Y-H, Ma J, Li L, Nan C-W (2017) BiFeO3–SrTiO3 thin film as a new lead-free relaxor-ferroelectric capacitor with ultrahigh energy storage performance. J Mater Chem A 5(12):5920–5926. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta00665a10.1039/c7ta00665a ↗

11. Tao H, Wu H, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Wu J, Li F, Lyu X, Zhao C, Xiao D, Zhu J, Pennycook SJ (2019) Ultrahigh performance in lead-free piezoceramics utilizing a relaxor slush polar state with multiphase coexistence. J Am Chem Soc 141(35):13987–13994. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b0718810.1021/jacs.9b07188 ↗

12. Preethi AJ, Ragam M (2021) Effect of doping in multiferroic BFO: a review. J Adv Dielectr 11(06):2130001. https://doi.org/10.1142/s2010135x2130001210.1142/s2010135x21300012 ↗

13. Wu Y, Li Y, Wang Y, Liu Q, Chen Q, Chen M (2022) Advances and prospects of PVDF based polymer electrolytes. J Energy Chem 64:62–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2021.04.00710.1016/j.jechem.2021.04.007 ↗

14. He J-H, He C-H, Qian M-Y, Alsolami AA (2024) Piezoelectric biosensor based on ultrasensitive MEMS system. Sens Actuators A Phys 376:115664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2024.11566410.1016/j.sna.2024.115664 ↗

15. Sezer N, Koç M (2021) A comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art of piezoelectric energy harvesting. Nano Energy 80:105567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.10556710.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105567 ↗

16. Yang L, Wang H, Leng D, Fang S, Yang Y, Du Y (2024) Machine learning applications in nanomaterials: recent advances and future perspectives. Chem Eng J 500:156687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.15668710.1016/j.cej.2024.156687 ↗

17. Maghsoudi Nia E, Wan Abdullah Zawawi N, Mahinder Singh BS (2019) Design of a pavement using piezoelectric materials. Materialwiss Werksttech 50(3):320–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/mawe.20190000210.1002/mawe.201900002 ↗

18. Tim R Dargaville, M C C, Julie M. Elliott, Pavel M. Chaplya, Gary D Jones, Daniel M Mowery R. A A, Roger L Clough, Jeffrey W Martin (2005) Characterization, performance and optimization of PVDF as a piezoelectric film for advanced space mirror concepts (No. SAND2005-6846). Sandia National Laboratories. https://doi.org/10.2172/876343.10.2172/876343 ↗

19. Habib M, Lantgios I, Hornbostel K (2022) A review of ceramic, polymer and composite piezoelectric materials. J Phys D Appl Phys 55(42):423002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/ac868710.1088/1361-6463/ac8687 ↗

20. Liu Y, Aziguli H, Zhang B, Xu W, Lu W, Bernholc J, Wang Q (2018) Ferroelectric polymers exhibiting behaviour reminiscent of a morphotropic phase boundary. Nature 562(7725):96–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0550-z10.1038/s41586-018-0550-z ↗

21. Khorsand Zak A, Yazdi ST, Abrishami ME, Hashim AM (2024) A review on piezoelectric ceramics and nanostructures: fundamentals and fabrications. J Aust Ceram Soc 60(3):723–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41779-024-00990-310.1007/s41779-024-00990-3 ↗

22. Leng S, Ye F, Wan S, Shi W, Ma G (2023) Optimizing piezoelectric properties and temperature stability via Nb2O5 doping in PZT-based ceramics. Ceram Int 49(23):39479–39487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2023.09.29510.1016/j.ceramint.2023.09.295 ↗

23. He S, Jiang G, Wang Q, Bian L, Yang B (2024) Effect of SiO2-Li2O3-CuO additive on piezoelectric properties of PMS-PZT ceramics at low sintering temperature. J Alloys Compd 1005:176079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.17607910.1016/j.jallcom.2024.176079 ↗

24. Lv X, Zhu J, Xiao D, Zhang X-x, Wu J (2020) Emerging new phase boundary in potassium sodium-niobate based ceramics. Chem Soc Rev 49(3):671–707. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9cs00432g10.1039/c9cs00432g ↗

25. Zhang M-H, Shen C, Zhao C, Dai M, Yao F-Z, Wu B, Ma J, Nan H, Wang D, Yuan Q et al (2022) Deciphering the phase transition-induced ultrahigh piezoresponse in (K, Na)NbO3-based piezoceramics. Nature Communications 13(1):3434. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-31158-x10.1038/s41467-022-31158-x ↗

26. Cheng Y, Guan S, Wang Q, Wu X, Xing J, Jiang L, Tan Z, Zhu J (2024) Mechanism and application of lead-free KNN-based ceramics with superior piezoelectricity. J Eur Ceram Soc 44(12):6978–6986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2024.04.05110.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2024.04.051 ↗

27. Nakamachi E, Hwang H, Uetsuji Y, Kuramae H. (2010) Three-scale process-crystallographic analysis of a new biocompatible piezoelectric material MgSiO3 generation. In 2010 2nd International Conference on Computer Technology and Development 206-210. https://doi.org/10.1109/icctd.2010.5645887.10.1109/icctd.2010.5645887 ↗

28. Su Y, Chen C, Pan H, Yang Y, Chen G, Zhao X, Li W, Gong Q, Xie G, Zhou Y et al (2021) Muscle fibers inspired high‐performance piezoelectric textiles for wearable physiological monitoring. Adv Funct Mater 31(19):2010962. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20201096210.1002/adfm.202010962 ↗

29. He H, Lu W, Oh JAS, Li Z, Lu X, Zeng K, Lu L (2020) Probing the coexistence of ferroelectric and relaxor states in Bi(0.5)Na(0.5)TiO(3)-based ceramics for enhanced piezoelectric performance. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 12(27):30548–30556. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c0666610.1021/acsami.0c06666 ↗

30. Wu J, Fan Z, Xiao D, Zhu J, Wang J (2016) Multiferroic bismuth ferrite-based materials for multifunctional applications: ceramic bulks, thin films and nanostructures. Prog Mater Sci 84:335–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2016.09.00110.1016/j.pmatsci.2016.09.001 ↗

31. MacLaren I, Wang L, Craven AJ, Ramasse QM, Schaffer B, Kalantari K, Reaney IM (2014) The atomic structure and chemistry of Fe-rich steps on antiphase boundaries in Ti-doped Bi0.9Nd0.15FeO3. APL Mater 2:066106. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.488468410.1063/1.4884684 ↗

32. Durga Rao T, Asthana S (2014) Evidence of improved ferroelectric phase stabilization in Nd and Sc co-substituted BiFeO3. J Appl Phys 116:164102. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.489880510.1063/1.4898805 ↗

33. Khesro A, Boston R, Sterianou I, Sinclair DC, Reaney IM (2016) Phase transitions, domain structure, and pseudosymmetry in La- and Ti-doped BiFeO3. J Appl Phys 119:054101. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.494039110.1063/1.4940391 ↗

34. Yun Q, Xing W, Chen J, Gao W, Bai Y, Zhao S (2015) Effect of Ho and Mn co-doping on structural, ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties of BiFeO3 thin films. Thin Solid Films 584:103–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2014.11.03010.1016/j.tsf.2014.11.030 ↗

35. Zhou W, Deng H, Cao H, He J, Liu J, Yang P, Chu J (2015) Effects of Sm and Mn co-doping on structural, optical and magnetic properties of BiFeO3 films prepared by a sol–gel technique. Mater Lett 144:93–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2015.01.03810.1016/j.matlet.2015.01.038 ↗

36. Chen J, Wang Y, Deng Y (2014) Combined effects of Bi deficiency and Mn substitution on the structural transformation and functionality of BiFeO3 films. J Appl Phys 116(17):174102. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.490132310.1063/1.4901323 ↗

37. Luo JM, Lin SP, Zheng Y, Wang B (2012) Nonpolar resistive switching in Mn-doped BiFeO3 thin films by chemical solution deposition. Appl Phys Lett 101:062902. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.474289710.1063/1.4742897 ↗

38. Raghavan CM, Kim JW, Kim SS (2013) Structural and improved electrical properties of rare earth (Sm, Tb and Ho) doped BiFe0.975Mn0.025O3 thin films. J Electroceram 31(3–4):275–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10832-013-9797-910.1007/s10832-013-9797-9 ↗

39. Zhang Q, Kim CH, Jang YH, Hwang HJ, Cho JH (2010) Multiferroic properties and surface potential behaviors in cobalt-doped BiFeO3 film. Appl Phys Lett 96:152901. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.339166710.1063/1.3391667 ↗

40. Yang CH, Seidel J, Kim SY, Rossen PB, Yu P, Gajek M, Chu YH, Martin LW, Holcomb MB, He Q et al (2009) Electric modulation of conduction in multiferroic Ca-doped BiFeO3 films. Nat Mater 8(6):485–493. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat243210.1038/nmat2432 ↗

41. Yang C-H, Kan D, Takeuchi I, Nagarajan V, Seidel J (2012) Doping BiFeO3: approaches and enhanced functionality. Phys Chem Chem Phys 14(46):15953-15962. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cp43082g10.1039/c2cp43082g ↗

42. Zeches RJ, Rossell MD, Zhang JX, Hatt AJ, He Q, Yang CH, Kumar A, Wang CH, Melville A, Adamo C et al (2009) A Strain-Driven Morphotropic Phase Boundary in BiFeO3. Science 326(5955):977–980. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.117704610.1126/science.1177046 ↗

43. Yi J, Zhai Y, Cheng Y-y-s, Shu L, Zhang D, Li J-F, Liu L (2025) Spin-coated BiFeO3 films on Si wafers: low processing temperature but prominent piezoelectricity. J Materiomics 11(3):100925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmat.2024.07.01010.1016/j.jmat.2024.07.010 ↗

44. Wang Z L, Song J (2006) Piezoelectric nanogenerators Based on Zinc Oxide nanowire Arrays. Science 312(5771):242-246. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1124005.10.1126/science.1124005 ↗

45. Briscoe J, Dunn S (2015) Piezoelectric nanogenerators – a review of nanostructured piezoelectric energy harvesters. Nano Energy 14:15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2014.11.05910.1016/j.nanoen.2014.11.059 ↗

46. Choi MY, Choi D, Jin MJ, Kim I, Kim SH, Choi JY, Lee SY, Kim JM, Kim SW (2009) Mechanically powered transparent flexible charge-generating nanodevices with piezoelectric ZnO nanorods. Adv Mater 21(21):2185–2189. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20080360510.1002/adma.200803605 ↗

47. Jin H, Gao X, Ren K, Liu J, Qiao L, Liu M, Chen W, He Y, Dong S, Xu Z, Li F (2022) Review on piezoelectric actuators based on high-performance piezoelectric materials. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control 69(11):3057–3069. https://doi.org/10.1109/TUFFC.2022.317585310.1109/TUFFC.2022.3175853 ↗

48. Xiao R, Song K, Li Q, Liu Y, Chen W, Guo H, Li F, Xu Z (2024) Ultrahigh piezoelectric properties and high transparency relaxor ferroelectric single crystals obtained by the combination of rare-earth doping and AC-poling. J Appl Phys 163(21):214103. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.023951710.1063/5.0239517 ↗

49. Sun E, Cao W (2014) Relaxor-based ferroelectric single crystals: growth, domain engineering, characterization and applications. Prog Mater Sci 65:124–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2014.03.00610.1016/j.pmatsci.2014.03.006 ↗

50. Shujun Z, Sung-Min L, Dong-Ho K, Ho-Yong L, Shrout TR (2008) Characterization of Mn-modified Pb (Mg1∕ 3Nb2∕ 3) O3–PbZrO3–PbTiO3 single crystals for high power broad bandwidth transducers. Appl Phys Lett 12:93. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.299208110.1063/1.2992081 ↗

51. Wu H, Han S, Liu J, Zhu X, Wang J, Sha H, Xu G (2024) Enhanced high-power behaviors of Mn-doped Pb (In1/2Nb1/2) O3-Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3) O3-PbTiO3 piezoelectric crystals through combining direct and alternating current polarization. J Alloys Compd 989:174370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.17437010.1016/j.jallcom.2024.174370 ↗

52. Zhang S, Li F (2012) High performance ferroelectric relaxor-PbTiO3 single crystals: status and perspective. J Appl Phys 111(3):031301. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.367952110.1063/1.3679521 ↗

53. Smith M, Kar-Narayan S (2021) Piezoelectric polymers: theory, challenges and opportunities. Int Mater Rev 67(1):65–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2021.191593510.1080/09506608.2021.1915935 ↗

54. Wang Z-X, W-Q L (2022) Giant electromechanical effects in polymers Science 375(6587):1353–1354. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abn744010.1126/science.abn7440 ↗

55. Kawai H (1969) The piezoelectricity of poly (vinylidene fluoride). Jpn J Appl Phys 8:975–976. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.8.97510.1143/JJAP.8.975 ↗

56. Yan M, Liu S, Liu Y, Xiao Z, Yuan X, Zhai D, Zhou K, Wang Q, Zhang D, Bowen C (2022) Flexible PVDF–TrFE nanocomposites with Ag-decorated BCZT heterostructures for piezoelectric nanogenerator applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 14(47):53261–53273. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c1558110.1021/acsami.2c15581 ↗

57. Bairagi S, Shahid ul I, Shahadat M, Mulvihill D M, Ali W (2023) Mechanical energy harvesting and self-powered electronic applications of textile-based piezoelectric nanogenerators: A systematic review. Nano Energy 111:108414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108414.10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108414 ↗

58. Mathur SC, Scheinbeim JI, Newman BA (1984) Piezoelectric properties and ferroelectric hysteresis effects in uniaxially stretched nylon-11 films. J Appl Phys 56(9):2419–2425. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.33429410.1063/1.334294 ↗

59. George A, Varghese H, Chandran A, Surendran KP, Gowd EB (2024) Directional freezing-induced self-poled piezoelectric nylon 11 aerogels as high-performance mechanical energy harvesters. J Mater Chem A 12(2):911–922. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ta05911a10.1039/d3ta05911a ↗

60. Bernard F, Gimeno L, Viala B, Gusarov B, Cugat O (2017) Direct Piezoelectric Coefficient Measurements of PVDF and PLLA under Controlled Strain and Stress. In Proceedings of Eurosensors 2017, Paris, France, 3-6. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings1040335.10.3390/proceedings1040335 ↗

61. Marsi TCO, Ricci R, Toniato TV, Vasconcellos LMR, Elias CdMV, Silva ADR, Furtado ASA, Magalhães LSSM, Silva-Filho EC, Marciano FR et al (2019) Electrospun nanofibrous poly (lactic acid)/titanium dioxide nanocomposite membranes for cutaneous scar minimization. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 7:421. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2019.0042110.3389/fbioe.2019.00421 ↗

62. Ma X, Zhukov S, von Seggern H, Sessler GM, Ben Dali O, Kupnik M, Dai Y, He P, Zhang X (2023) Biodegradable and bioabsorbable polylactic acid ferroelectrets with prominent piezoelectric activity. Adv Electron Mater 9:2201070. https://doi.org/10.1002/aelm.20220107010.1002/aelm.202201070 ↗

63. Wang Z, Zhang Z, Peng Z, Yang X, Li X, Shan Y, Liu B, Xu X, Gao Y, Yang Z (2025) Self-charging and long-term face masks leveraging low-cost, biodegradable and sustainable piezoelectric nanofiber membrane. Nano Mater Sci 7(1):113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2024.02.01210.1016/j.nanoms.2024.02.012 ↗

64. Yamazaki H, Kitayama T (2011) Pyroelectric properties of polymer-ferroelectric composites. Ferroelectrics 33(1):147–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/0015019810800808010.1080/00150198108008080 ↗

65. Du X, Zhou Z, Zhang Z, Yao L, Zhang Q, Yang H (2022) Porous, multi-layered piezoelectric composites based on highly oriented PZT/PVDF electrospinning fibers for high-performance piezoelectric nanogenerators. J Adv Ceram 11(2):331–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40145-021-0537-310.1007/s40145-021-0537-3 ↗

66. Athira BS, George A, Vaishna Priya K, Hareesh US, Gowd EB, Surendran KP, Chandran A (2022) High-performance flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator based on electrospun PVDF-BaTiO3 nanofibers for self-powered vibration sensing applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 14(39):44239–44250. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c0791110.1021/acsami.2c07911 ↗

67. Peng R, Zhang B, Dong G, Wang Y, Yang G, Zhang J, Peng B, Zhao Y, Liu M (2024) Enhanced piezoelectric energy harvester by employing freestanding single-crystal BaTiO3 films in PVDF-TrFE based composites. Adv Function Mater 34(27):2316519. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20231651910.1002/adfm.202316519 ↗

68. Hussain I, Lamiel C, Javed MS, Ahmad M, Sahoo S, Chen X, Qin N, Iqbal S, Gu S, Li Y et al (2023) MXene-based heterostructures: current trend and development in electrochemical energy storage devices. Prog Energy Combust Sci 97:101097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2023.10109710.1016/j.pecs.2023.101097 ↗

69. Zhao J, Li L, Li P, Dai L, Dong J, Zhou L, Wang Y, Zhang P, Ji K, Zhang Y et al (2025) Realization of 2D metals at the ångström thickness limit. Nature 639(8054):354–359. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08711-x10.1038/s41586-025-08711-x ↗

70. Su Y, Li W, Cheng X, Zhou Y, Yang S Zhang X Chen C, Yang T, Pan H, Xie G et al (2022) High-performance piezoelectric composites via β phase programming. Nature Communications 13 (1):32518. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32518-3.10.1038/s41467-022-32518-3 ↗

71. Xue Y, Yang T, Zheng Y, Wang K, Wang E, Wang H, Zhu L, Du Z, Wang H, Chou KC, Hou X (2023) Heterojunction engineering enhanced self‐polarization of PVDF/CsPbBr3/Ti3C2Tx composite fiber for ultra‐high voltage piezoelectric nanogenerator. Adv Sci 10(18):2300650. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.20230065010.1002/advs.202300650 ↗

72. Xie X, Yang C, Qi X-d, Yang J-h, Zhou Z-w, Wang Y (2019) Constructing polymeric interlayer with dual effects toward high dielectric constant and low dielectric loss. Chem Eng J 366:378–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.10610.1016/j.cej.2019.02.106 ↗

73. Guan X, Xu B, Gong J (2020) Hierarchically architected polydopamine modified BaTiO3@P(VDF-TrFE) nanocomposite fiber mats for flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators and self-powered sensors. Nano Energy 70:104516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.10451610.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104516 ↗

74. Huang Z-X, Li L-W, Huang Y-Z, Rao W-X, Jiang H-W, Wang J, Zhang H-H, He H-Z, Qu J-P (2024) Self-poled piezoelectric polymer composites via melt-state energy implantation. Nature Communications 15(1):819. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45184-410.1038/s41467-024-45184-4 ↗

75. Du S, Zhou N, Gao Y, Xie G, Du H, Jiang H, Zhang L, Tao J, Zhu J (2020) Bioinspired hybrid patches with self-adhesive hydrogel and piezoelectric nanogenerator for promoting skin wound healing. Nano Res 13(9):2525–2533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-020-2891-910.1007/s12274-020-2891-9 ↗

76. Zhang H, Tang Y, Gu Z, Wang P, Chen X, Lv H, Li P, Jiang Q, Gu N, Ren S, Xiong R (2024) Biodegradable ferroelectric molecular crystal with large piezoelectric response. Science 383:1492–1498. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adj194610.1126/science.adj1946 ↗

77. Dai Z, Li D, Zhou Z, Zhou S, Liu W, Liu J, Wang X, Ren X (2022) A strategy for high performance of energy storage and transparency in KNN-based ferroelectric ceramics. Chem Eng J 427:131959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.13195910.1016/j.cej.2021.131959 ↗

78. Zhang X, Shen Y, Xu B, Zhang Q, Gu L, Jiang J, Ma J, Lin Y, Nan CW (2016) Giant energy density and improved discharge efficiency of solution-processed polymer nanocomposites for dielectric energy storage. Adv Mater 28(10):2055–2061. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20150388110.1002/adma.201503881 ↗

79. Hosseini ES, Manjakkal L, Shakthivel D, Dahiya R (2020) Glycine–chitosan-based flexible biodegradable piezoelectric pressure sensor. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 12(8):9008–9016. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b2105210.1021/acsami.9b21052 ↗

80. Li L, Zhang M, Wang Z, Hu Y, Gu H, Xiong J (2024) A biodegradable ZnFe2O4/PLLA electrospun fibers based longitudinal mode piezoelectric membrane for health monitoring. Surf Interfaces 52:104907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2024.10490710.1016/j.surfin.2024.104907 ↗

81. Ali M, Hoseyni SM, Das R, Awais M, Basdogan I, Beker L (2023) A flexible and biodegradable piezoelectric‐based wearable sensor for non‐invasive monitoring of dynamic human motions and physiological signals. Adv Mater Technol 8(15):2300347. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.20230034710.1002/admt.202300347 ↗

82. Lu S, Li S, Li Q, Yang L, Zhang H, Li J, Huang L, Chen L, Zeng H, Wu H (2025) Flexible cellulose-based hybrid nanogenerators for self-powered wearable bio-monitoring applications. J Colloid Interface Sci 685:1087–1098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2025.01.19010.1016/j.jcis.2025.01.190 ↗

83. Weber N, Lee YS, Shanmugasundaram S, Jaffe M, Arinzeh TL (2010) Characterization and in vitro cytocompatibility of piezoelectric electrospun scaffolds. Acta Biomater 6(9):3550–3556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.03.03510.1016/j.actbio.2010.03.035 ↗

84. Lee Y-S, Collins G, Livingston Arinzeh T (2011) Neurite extension of primary neurons on electrospun piezoelectric scaffolds. Acta Biomater 7(11):3877–3886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2011.07.01310.1016/j.actbio.2011.07.013 ↗

85. Lee Y-S, Arinzeh TL (2012) The influence of piezoelectric scaffolds on neural differentiation of human neural stem/progenitor cells. Tissue Eng Part A 18(19–20):2063–2072. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2011.054010.1089/ten.tea.2011.0540 ↗

86. Rajabi AH, Jaffe M, Arinzeh TL (2015) Piezoelectric materials for tissue regeneration: a review. Acta Biomater 24:12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2015.07.01010.1016/j.actbio.2015.07.010 ↗

87. Mayeen A, Santhosh A, Joseph N, Jose J, Manoj A, Joseph S, Bhat S, John H (2024) Flexible, electrospun boron nitride nanosheets (BNNS)/hydroxyapatite –PVDF nanofibers with superior piezoelectric/ferroelectric, biocompatible features for effective bone tissue regeneration. J Alloys Compd 1002:175111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.17511110.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175111 ↗

88. Jettanasen C, Songsukthawan P, Ngaopitakkul A (2022) Conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy using piezoelectric materials for bicycle lane lighting systems. Appl Sci (Basel) 12(14):7237. https://doi.org/10.3390/app1214723710.3390/app12147237 ↗

89. Huang K, Zhang H, Jiang J, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Sun L, Zhang Y (2022) The optimal design of a piezoelectric energy harvester for smart pavements. Int J Mech Sci 232:107609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2022.10760910.1016/j.ijmecsci.2022.107609 ↗

90. Gao MY, Wang P, Cao Y, Chen R, Liu C (2016) A rail-borne piezoelectric transducer for energy harvesting of railway vibration. J Vibroeng 18(7):4647–4663. https://doi.org/10.21595/jve.2016.1693810.21595/jve.2016.16938 ↗

91. Hou W, Li Y, Zheng Y, Guo W (2020) Multi-frequency energy harvesting method for vehicle induced vibration of rail transit continuous rigid bridges. J Clean Prod 254:119981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.11998110.1016/j.jclepro.2020.119981 ↗

92. Al-Najati IA, Jasim AF, Chan KW, Pung S-Y (2024) The future of tire energy: a novel one-end cap structure for sustainable energy harvesting. Mater Renew Sustain Energy 13(2):181–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-023-00254-310.1007/s40243-023-00254-3 ↗

93. Esmaeeli R, Aliniagerdroudbari H, Hashemi SR, Alhadri M, Zakri W, Batur C, Farhad S (2019) Design, modeling, and analysis of a high performance piezoelectric energy harvester for intelligent tires. Int J Energy Res 43(10):5199–5212. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.444110.1002/er.4441 ↗

94. Wu Y, Ma Y, Zheng H, Ramakrishna S (2021) Piezoelectric materials for flexible and wearable electronics: a review. Mater Des 211:110164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.11016410.1016/j.matdes.2021.110164 ↗

95. Wang D, Zhang D, Li P, Yang Z, Mi Q, Yu L (2021) Electrospinning of flexible poly(vinyl alcohol)/MXene nanofiber-based humidity sensor self-powered by monolayer molybdenum diselenide piezoelectric nanogenerator. Nano-Micro Lett 13(1):57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00580-510.1007/s40820-020-00580-5 ↗

96. Yuan Y, Chen H, Xu H, Jin Y, Chen G, Zheng W, Wang W, Wang Y, Gao L (2022) Highly sensitive and wearable bionic piezoelectric sensor for human respiratory monitoring. Sens Actuators A Phys 345:113818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2022.11381810.1016/j.sna.2022.113818 ↗

97. Xu S, Yeh YW, Poirier G, McAlpine MC, Register RA, Yao N (2013) Flexible piezoelectric PMN-PT nanowire-based nanocomposite and device. Nano Lett 13(6):2393–2398. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl400169t10.1021/nl400169t ↗

98. Jiang L, Yang P, Fan Y, Zeng S, Wang Z, Pan Z, He Y, Xiong J, Zhang X, Hu Y et al (2021) Ultrahigh piezoelectric coefficients of Li-doped (K,Na)NbO3 nanorod arrays with manipulated O-T phase boundary: towards energy harvesting and self-powered human movement monitoring. Nano Energy 86:106072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.10607210.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106072 ↗

99. Shi K, Sun B, Huang X, Jiang P (2018) Synergistic effect of graphene nanosheet and BaTiO3 nanoparticles on performance enhancement of electrospun PVDF nanofiber mat for flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators. Nano Energy 52:153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.07.05310.1016/j.nanoen.2018.07.053 ↗

100. Sasikumar R, Cho S, Waqar A, Ishfaque A, Choi D, Kim B (2024) Microcrack-assisted piezoelectric acoustic sensor based on f-MWCNTs/BaTiO3@PDMS nanocomposite and its self-powered voice recognition applications. Chem Eng J 479:147297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.14729710.1016/j.cej.2023.147297 ↗