From Field to Market: Evolution of Strawberry-Harvesting Techniques and Research Progress in Intelligent Robotic Systems
Source abstract
Abstract
Strawberry production is economically important but remains highly dependent on labour-intensive harvesting. The delicate texture, irregular distribution, and non-uniform maturity of strawberry fruit create substantial challenges for mechanised and robotic operations. This review examines the development of strawberry-harvesting technologies from the broader perspectives of crop value, cultivation management, harvesting methods, robotic systems, post-harvest handling, and sustainable production. The nutritional and economic significance of strawberries is first outlined, followed by an analysis of cultivation environments, production patterns, and crop-management practices that influence fruit accessibility and robotic operation. The historical transition from manual harvesting to mechanised and intelligent harvesting is then reviewed. Particular attention is given to the principal technologies of strawberry-harvesting robots, including mobile platforms, robotic manipulators, path planning and obstacle avoidance, end-effectors, visual recognition, multispectral sensing, and software control. Robotic systems designed for elevated and ridge-based cultivation are also compared to clarify the influence of cultivation layout on platform configuration and harvesting strategy. In addition, the integration of harvesting with fruit transfer, post-harvest handling, and sustainable cultivation is discussed. The reviewed studies indicate that effective robotic harvesting depends on the coordinated design of cultivation systems, perception, motion planning, compliant manipulation, and system control. Future research should prioritise robust perception under occlusion, low-damage harvesting, improved operational speed, scenario adaptability, cost reduction, and closer integration between agronomic practices and robotic design.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Affiliations
School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
Funding
Jiangsu University
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Evaluation of a strawberry-harvesting robot in a field test10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2009.09.011 ↗
2. Improving picking efficiency under occlusion: Design, development, and field evaluation of an innovative robotic strawberry harvester10.1016/j.compag.2025.110684 ↗
3. Modular autonomous strawberry picking robotic system10.1002/rob.22229 ↗
4. Research on the visual location method for strawberry picking points under complex conditions based on composite models10.1002/jsfa.13684 ↗
5. Design and simulation experiment of ridge planting strawberry picking manipulator10.1016/j.compag.2023.107690 ↗
6. Nutrient value of fruit in promising strawberry varieties
7. A Review of Strawberry Picking Patents10.2174/0118722121306773240904061919 ↗
8. Device for robotic picking of strawberries10.1051/e3sconf/202019301045 ↗
9. Pan, X., Luo, C., Zheng, Y., Hou, Z., and Ma, A. (2024, January 6–9). Research and Design of an Intelligent Strawberry Picking Robot Based on STM32 and Color Sensor Technology. Proceedings of the 2024 4th International Conference on Robotics, Automation and Intelligent Control (ICRAIC), Changsha, China.
10. Fruit localization for strawberry harvesting robot based on visual servoing
11. Quality and nutritional value of strawberry fruit under long term salt stress10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.071 ↗
12. Estimating strawberry attributes’ market equilibrium values10.21273/HORTSCI11359-16 ↗
13. Simpson, D. (2018). The economic importance of strawberry crops. The Genomes of Rosaceous Berries and Their Wild Relatives, Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-76020-9_1 ↗
14. Yu, Y., Xie, H., Zhang, K., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Zhou, J., and Xu, L. (2024). Design, Development, Integration, and Field Evaluation of a Ridge-Planting Strawberry Harvesting Robot. Agriculture, 14.10.3390/agriculture14122126 ↗
15. Development and field test of an autonomous strawberry plug seeding transplanter for use in elevated cultivation10.13031/aea.13236 ↗
16. The strawberry: Composition, nutritional quality, and impact on human health10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.009 ↗
17. A review on the recent developments in vision-based apple-harvesting robots for recognizing fruit and picking pose10.1016/j.compag.2025.109968 ↗
18. Jiang, L., Wang, Y., Wu, C., and Wu, H. (2024). Fruit Distribution Density Estimation in YOLO-Detected Strawberry Images: A Kernel Density and Nearest Neighbor Analysis Approach. Agriculture, 14.10.3390/agriculture14101848 ↗
19. Development and application of a strawberry yield-monitoring picking cart10.1016/j.compag.2018.10.038 ↗
20. Recognition and localization of strawberries from 3D binocular cameras for a strawberry picking robot using coupled YOLO/Mask R-CNN
21. Environmental impact assessment of open field and greenhouse strawberry production10.1016/j.eja.2013.05.003 ↗
22. Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa cv. Romina) methanolic extract attenuates Alzheimer’s beta amyloid production and oxidative stress by SKN-1/NRF and DAF-16/FOXO mediated mechanisms in C. elegans10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131272 ↗
23. Changes in quality and microbiome composition of strawberry fruits following postharvest application of Debaryomyces hansenii, a yeast biocontrol agent10.1016/j.postharvbio.2023.112379 ↗
24. Current state and future perspectives of commercial strawberry production: A review10.1016/j.scienta.2023.111893 ↗
25. Huang, Z., Wane, S., and Parsons, S. (2017, January 19–21). Towards automated strawberry harvesting: Identifying the picking point. Proceedings of the Conference Towards Autonomous Robotic Systems, Guildford, UK.10.1007/978-3-319-64107-2_18 ↗
26. Mazzoni, L., Balducci, F., Marcellini, M., Pergolotti, V., Capocasa, F., and Mezzetti, B. (2019, January 9–12). Evaluation of strawberry nutritional quality. Proceedings of the VI International Symposium on Applications of Modelling as an Innovative Technology in the Horticultural Supply Chain Model-IT 1311, Molfetta, Italy.
27. Ao, J., Ji, W., Yu, X., Ruan, C., and Xu, B. (2025). End-Effectors for Fruit and Vegetable Harvesting Robots: A Review of Key Technologies, Challenges, and Future Prospects. Agronomy, 15.10.3390/agronomy15112650 ↗
28. The nutritional value of strawberries and cherries and their use in nutrition
29. Pergola, M., Maffia, A., Carlucci, G., Persiani, A., Palese, A.M., Zaccardelli, M., Altieri, G., and Celano, G. (2023). An environmental and economic analysis of strawberry production in southern Italy. Agriculture, 13.10.3390/agriculture13091705 ↗
30. Economic Valuation and the Determinants of Demand Factors of Bandung Strawberry Agrotourism, West Java, Indonesia
31. Understanding the economic sustainability of strawberry farming in North Carolina
32. Current status of strawberry production and research in China10.17660/ActaHortic.2014.1049.3 ↗
33. Valuation of cost and returns of strawberry in Punjab, Pakistan
34. The status and future of the strawberry industry in the United States10.21273/HORTTECH04135-18 ↗
35. Status of strawberry breeding programs and cultivation systems in Europe and the rest of the world10.3233/JBR-180314 ↗
36. Evaluation of sustainability in strawberry crops production under greenhouse and open-field systems in the Andes10.1080/14735903.2023.2255449 ↗
37. Quality and postharvest-shelf life of cold-stored strawberry fruit as affected by gum arabic (Acacia senegal) edible coating10.1111/jfbc.12527 ↗
38. Enhancing Plant Growth and Yield Under Reduced Water and Nutrient Conditions: The Role of Biostimulants in Improving Irrigation Efficiency and Drought Resilience in Soilless Strawberry Cultivation Under Glasshouse Conditions10.1002/sae2.70082 ↗
39. Larson, K.D. (2018). Strawberry. Handbook of Environmental Physiology of Fruit Crops, CRC Press.10.1201/9780203719299-10 ↗
40. Challenges of strawberry production in high-pH soil at high elevation in the southwestern United States10.21273/HORTSCI.50.2.254 ↗
41. Prediction of strawberry growth and fruit yield based on environmental and growth data in a greenhouse for soil cultivation with applied autonomous facilities
42. Different growing conditions affect nutrient content, fruit yield and growth in strawberry
43. Features of growing garden strawberries in open ground conditions
44. Feng, M., Chitrakar, B., Chen, J., Islam, M., Wei, B., Wang, B., Zhou, C., Ma, H., and Xu, B. (2022). Effect of Multi-Mode Thermosonication on the Microbial Inhibition and Quality Retention of Strawberry Clear Juice during Storage at Varied Temperatures. Foods, 11.10.3390/foods11172593 ↗
45. Preparation and characterization of ultrasound-assisted essential oil-loaded nanoemulsions stimulated pullulan-based bioactive film for strawberry fruit preservation10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136254 ↗
46. Nascimento, D.A., Gomes, G.C., de Oliveira, L.V.B., de Paula Gomes, G.F., Ivamoto-Suzuki, S.T., Ziest, A.R., Mariguele, K.H., Roberto, S.R., and de Resende, J.T.V. (2023). Adaptability and stability analyses of improved strawberry genotypes for tropical climate. Horticulturae, 9.10.3390/horticulturae9060643 ↗
47. Lakhiar, I., Yan, H., Syed, T., Zhang, C., Shaikh, S., Rakibuzzaman, M., and Vistro, R. (2025). Soilless Agricultural Systems: Opportunities, Challenges, and Applications for Enhancing Horticultural Resilience to Climate Change and Urbanization. Horticulturae, 11.10.3390/horticulturae11060568 ↗
48. Edo, G.S., Godana, E.A., Ngolong Ngea, G.L., Wang, K., Yang, Q., and Zhang, H. (2025). Improving biocontrol potential of antagonistic yeasts against fungal pathogen in postharvest fruits and vegetables through application of organic enhancing agents. Foods, 14.10.3390/foods14173075 ↗
49. Li, K., Shi, J., Hu, C., and Xue, W. (2025). The Intelligentization Process of Agricultural Greenhouse: A Review of Control Strategies and Modeling Techniques. Agriculture, 15.10.3390/agriculture15202135 ↗
50. Optimization of the pot volume and substrate for strawberry cultivation in a hydroponic system
51. Pinto, J.P., da Cunha, F.F., da Silva Adão, A., de Paula, L.B., Ribeiro, M.C., and Costa Neto, J.R.R. (2022). Strawberry production with different mulches and wetted areas. Horticulturae, 8.10.3390/horticulturae8100930 ↗
52. Soil Nematodes in Agroecosystems: Linking Cropping System’s Rhizosphere Ecology to Nematode Structure and Function10.1007/s42729-024-01982-9 ↗
53. Mulberry fruit post-harvest management: Techniques, composition and influence on quality traits-A review10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109126 ↗
54. Ma, J., Li, M., Fan, W., and Liu, J. (2024). State-of-the-Art Techniques for Fruit Maturity Detection. Agronomy, 14.10.3390/agronomy14122783 ↗
55. Mohamed, T.M.K., Gao, J., Abuarab, M.E., Kassem, M., Wasef, E., and El-Ssawy, W. (2022). Applying different magnetic water densities as irrigation for aeroponically and hydroponically grown strawberries. Agriculture, 12.10.3390/agriculture12060819 ↗
56. Shabbir, A., Mao, H., Ullah, I., Buttar, N.A., Ajmal, M., and Solangi, K.A. (2020). Improving water use efficiency by optimizing the root distribution patterns under varying drip emitter density and drought stress for cherry tomato. Agronomy, 11.10.3390/agronomy11010003 ↗
57. Specialization of Cultivation Pattern and Its Role in Rural Development Case Stady: Strawberry Cultivation in JAVARUD Region of Marivan Mehdi Taherkhani
58. Soppelsa, S., Gasser, M., and Zago, M. (2023). Optimizing planting density in Alpine Mountain strawberry cultivation in Martell Valley, Italy. Agronomy, 13.10.3390/agronomy13051422 ↗
59. Effects of varieties and cultivation conditions on the composition of strawberries10.1016/S0889-1575(02)00165-5 ↗
60. Epidemiology and control of strawberry powdery mildew: A review10.36253/phyto-14576 ↗
61. Regulation of soil nitrogen spatiotemporal variation by sprinkler irrigation patterns under surface fertilizer application10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109654 ↗
62. Lahiri, S., Smith, H.A., Gireesh, M., Kaur, G., and Montemayor, J.D. (2022). Arthropod pest management in strawberry. Insects, 13.10.3390/insects13050475 ↗
63. Maas, J. (2012, January 18–22). Strawberry diseases and pests-progress and problems. Proceedings of the VII International Strawberry Symposium 1049, Beijing, China.
64. Wang, L., Gao, J., and Qureshi, W. (2025). Evolution and Application of Precision Fertilizer: A Review. Agronomy, 15.10.3390/agronomy15081939 ↗
65. A new approach for strawberry disease control10.17660/eJHS.2019/84.1.1 ↗
66. Maas, J.L. (2004). Strawberry disease management. Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables: Volume II: Diagnosis and Management, Springer.
67. Onyekwelu, J., and Okunlola, F.A.I. (2017). Control and Management of Pests and Diseases in Agricultural Nursery. Agricultural Risk Management in Africa, ANAFE.
68. Bio-control activity of Pichia anomala supplemented with chitosan against Penicillium expansum in postharvest grapes and its possible inhibition mechanism10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109188 ↗
69. Hegde, S.S., and Sangamesh, L.G. (2024). 17. Maturity Indices and Harvesting of Strawberry. Production, Protection, marketing, and technology of Strawberry, Research Floor Publications.
70. Basic Study on Strawberry Harvesting Robot (Part II): Design and Development of Harvesting Mechanism10.1016/S1474-6670(17)36751-4 ↗
71. Exogenous trehalose enhanced the biocontrol efficacy of Hanseniaspora uvarum against grape berry rots caused by Aspergillus tubingensis and Penicillium commune10.1002/jsfa.8998 ↗
72. Research progress on fruit harvesting using finite element analysis
73. Current research status and development trends of fruit and vegetable harvesting robots
74. Ren, X., Dai, F., Zhao, W., Shi, R., Chen, J., and Chang, L. (2025). Progress in mechanized harvesting technologies and equipment for minor cereals: A review. Agriculture, 15.10.3390/agriculture15151576 ↗
75. Study on the control effect and physiological mechanism of Wickerhamomyces anomalus on primary postharvest diseases of peach fruit10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110575 ↗
76. Strawberry production in Japan: History and progress in production technology and cultivar development10.1080/15538362.2012.697027 ↗
77. Hummer, K.E., and Hancock, J. (2009). Strawberry genomics: Botanical history, cultivation, traditional breeding, and new technologies. Genetics and genomics of Rosaceae, Springer.10.1007/978-0-387-77491-6_20 ↗
78. Lei, J., Jiang, S., Ma, R., Xue, L., Zhao, J., and Dai, H. (2021, January 1–5). Current status of strawberry industry in China. Proceedings of the IX International Strawberry Symposium 1309, Rimini, Italy.10.17660/ActaHortic.2021.1309.50 ↗
79. Cordeiro, L.d.S., Nääs, I.d.A., and Okano, M.T. (2025). Smart Postharvest Management of Strawberries: YOLOv8-Driven Detection of Defects, Diseases, and Maturity. AgriEngineering, 7.10.3390/agriengineering7080246 ↗
80. Han, D., Wang, C., Zhang, H., Pang, H., Wang, X., Chen, X., and Wen, X. (2025). Advances in mechanized harvesting technologies and equipment for chili peppers. Agriculture, 15.10.3390/agriculture15111129 ↗
81. Review of robotic technology for strawberry production10.13031/aea.32.11318 ↗
82. A review of wheeled mobile robots
83. Verhoeff, K., Mollema, C., and Rabbinge, R. (2007). Agricultural science in the Netherlands. Agricultural Research Management, Springer.10.1007/978-1-4020-6057-1_17 ↗
84. Adaptation of knowledge systems to changes in agriculture and society: The case of the Netherlands10.1016/j.njas.2011.03.002 ↗
85. New strawberry harvesting robot for elevated-trough culture
86. Review of tracked mobile robots
87. Zhao, J., Fan, S., Zhang, B., Wang, A., Zhang, L., and Zhu, Q. (2025). Research Status and Development Trends of Deep Reinforcement Learning in the Intelligent Transformation of Agricultural Machinery. Agriculture, 15.10.3390/agriculture15111223 ↗
88. Wu, S., Liu, J., Lei, X., Zhao, S., Lu, J., Jiang, Y., Xie, B., and Wang, M. (2022). Research Progress on Efficient Pollination Technology of Crops. Agronomy, 12.10.3390/agronomy12112872 ↗
89. Research status of track-type mobile robots
90. Lu, Y., Xu, W., Leng, J., Liu, X., Xu, H., Ding, H., Zhou, J., and Cui, L. (2024). Review and Research Prospects on Additive Manufacturing Technology for Agricultural Manufacturing. Agriculture, 14.10.3390/agriculture14081207 ↗
91. Review of mammal like legged robots
92. Locomotion control of quadruped robots based on workspace trajectory modulations
93. Single-legged hopping robotics research—A review10.1017/S0263574707003487 ↗
94. Humanoid locomotion and manipulation: Current progress and challenges in control, planning, and learning10.1109/TMECH.2025.3579247 ↗
95. A multifunctional study of naturally occurring pyrazines in biological systems; formation mechanisms, metabolism, food applications and functional properties10.1080/10408398.2021.2017260 ↗
96. Xu, Z., Liu, J., Wang, J., Cai, L., Jin, Y., Zhao, S., and Xie, B. (2023). Realtime Picking Point Decision Algorithm of Trellis Grape for High-Speed Robotic Cut-and-Catch Harvesting. Agronomy, 13.10.3390/agronomy13061618 ↗
97. Kinematic analysis and path control for a high mobility obstacle crossing robot
98. Liu, J., Liang, J., Zhao, S., Jiang, Y., Wang, J., and Jin, Y. (2023). Design of a Virtual Multi-Interaction Operation System for Hand-Eye Coordination of Grape Harvesting Robots. Agronomy, 13.10.3390/agronomy13030829 ↗
99. Recent advances on locomotion mechanisms of hybrid mobile robots
100. Kruthika, K., Kumar, B.K., and Lakshminarayanan, S. (2016, January 4–6). Design and development of a robotic arm. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Circuits, Controls, Communications and Computing (I4C), Bangalore, India.10.1109/CIMCA.2016.8053274 ↗