Textile-based triboelectric nanogenerators: A critical review of materials, fabric designs, and washability for wearable applications

Textile-based triboelectric nanogenerators (T-TENGs) have emerged as a promising technology for self-powered wearable electronics, leveraging everyday clothing and fabrics to harvest mechanical energy from human motions. Unlike conventional rigid TENGs, T-TENGs offer superior flexibility, breathability, and seamless integration into textiles, making them ideal for applications in smart wearables, healthcare monitoring, and the Internet of Things (IoT). However, critical challenges remain in optimizing fiber materials, fabric structures, and long-term washability for practical applications. This review provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of recent advancements in T-TENGs, focusing on three key areas: (1) fiber selection (triboelectric materials, conductive components, and hybrid functionalization), (2) fabric structure optimization (woven, knitted, and nonwoven architectures, layered designs, and stretchability enhancements), and (3) washability and durability challenges (degradation mechanisms, encapsulation strategies, and standardized testing methods). We systematically evaluated the trade-offs between performance, comfort, and durability, highlighting unresolved issues such as mechanical degradation after washing, electrode delamination, and scalability limitations. Furthermore, we discussed emerging applications in wearable energy harvesting, self-powered sensors, and smart textiles, while outlining future research directions, including sustainable materials, machine learning-assisted design, and integration with energy-storage systems. This review aims to serve as a guideline for researchers and engineers working on next-generation T-TENGs, bridging the gap between laboratory-scale innovations and commercially viable textile-based energy solutions.