Inorganic nanostructures as carriers for doxorubicin in targeted cancer therapy: advances in nanoformulation strategies

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent for treating various cancers. However, its clinical application is significantly hampered by systemic toxicity, multidrug resistance, and poor tumor selectivity. Inorganic-based nanostructures have emerged as promising drug delivery systems to overcome these limitations by enhancing drug stability, improving bioavailability, and enabling targeted drug release. Various inorganic nanostructures, including mesoporous silica nanoparticles, metal-based nanostructures, quantum dots, metal-organic frameworks, layered double hydroxides, and carbon-based nanostructures, have been extensively investigated for DOX delivery. These nanostructures offer high drug-loading capacity, controlled release mechanisms, and the potential for theranostic applications. Despite significant advancements, challenges such as biocompatibility, large-scale production, and regulatory approval hinder their clinical translation. This review provides an in-depth analysis of recent progress in inorganic-based nanostructures for DOX delivery, highlighting their advantages, surface functionalization strategies, and stimuli-responsive mechanisms. Additionally, the challenges and future perspectives in the field are critically assessed, emphasizing the need for further research to bridge the gap between laboratory innovation and clinical applications. The findings of this review contribute to the growing body of knowledge on inorganic nanostructures as a transformative platform for cancer therapy.