On the Use of X-ray Computed Tomography in Assessment of 3D-Printed Components
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Technical advantages of additive manufacturing (AM) have drawn great attention over the past few years. This cost-effective manufacturing process proved its potential applications in a wide range of fields. Although AM techniques (known as 3D printing) are able to fabricate geometrically complex components, it is necessary to evaluate internal and external dimensions of the printed parts. In this context, x-ray computed tomography (CT) as a nondestructive evaluation technique has been utilized. Indeed, CT can be used for geometric analysis, defects detection, quantitative comparison, structural quantification and porosity analysis. In the current study, we present a brief review of 3D printing processes and evolution of CT technology. Moreover, applications of CT in assessment of 3D-printed components are explained in detail. Although CT has been used in academic and industrial researches, abilities of this inspection method are not yet fully documented for precision engineering applications. In this work, usage of this technique in study of printed components are categorized in four subdomains and discussed. The documented data proved that CT is an appropriate non-contact technique for technical evaluation of various printed parts. As usage of CT in assessment of printed parts is still evolving, the limitations, challenges and future perspective are outlined.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced X-ray and CT Imaging · Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Welding Techniques and Residual Stresses
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Xu, Z., Thompson, H.A., Leach, R.K., Maskery, I., Tuck, C., Clare, A.T.: Staged thermomechanical testing of nickel superalloys produced by selective laser melting. Mater. Des. 133, 520–527 (2017)10.1016/j.matdes.2017.08.009 ↗
2. Rometsch, P.A., Pelliccia, D., Tomus, D., Wu, X.: Evaluation of polychromatic X-ray radiography defect detection limits in a sample fabricated from Hastelloy X by selective laser melting. NDT E Int. 62, 184–192 (2014)10.1016/j.ndteint.2013.12.014 ↗
3. Khosravani, M.R., Reinicke, T.: 3D-printed sensors: current progress and future challenges. Sens. Actuators A. 305, 111916 (2020)10.1016/j.sna.2020.111916 ↗
4. Walker, J.M., Prokop, A., Lynagh, C., Vuksanovich, B., Conner, B., Rogers, K., Thiel, J., MacDonald, E.: Real-time process monitoring of core shifts during metal casting with wireless sensing and 3D sand printing. Addit. Manuf. 27, 54–60 (2019)
5. Biondani, F.G., Bissacco, G., Mohanty, S., Tang, P.T., Hansen, H.N.: Multi-metal additive manufacturing process chain for optical quality mold generation. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 227, 116451 (2020)10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116451 ↗
6. Bissacco, G., Hansen, H.N., De Chiffre, L.: Micromilling of hardened tool steel for mould making applications. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 167, 201–207 (2005)10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.029 ↗
7. Cheung, C.F., Kong, L.B., Hi, L.T., To, S.: Modelling and simulation of structure surface generation using computer controlled ultra-precision polishing. Precis. Eng. 35, 574–590 (2011)10.1016/j.precisioneng.2011.04.001 ↗
8. Zhao, Y., Kunieda, M., Abe, K.: Study of EDM cutting of single crystal silicon carbide. Precis. Eng. 38, 92–99 (2014)10.1016/j.precisioneng.2013.07.008 ↗
9. Kawanaka, T., Kato, S., Kunieda, M., Murray, J.W., Clare, A.T.: Selective surface texturing using electrolyte jet machining. Procedia CIRP 13, 345–349 (2014)10.1016/j.procir.2014.04.058 ↗
10. Fang, F.Z., Zhang, X.D., Guo, Y.B., Byrne, G., Hansen, H.N.: Nanomanufacturing—perspective and applications. CIRP Ann. 66, 683–705 (2017)10.1016/j.cirp.2017.05.004 ↗
11. Thompson, D.O., Chimenti, D.E.: Review of of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation. Springer, Berlin (1996)10.1007/978-1-4613-0383-1 ↗
12. I. Altpeter, G. Dobmann, NDE of material degradation by embrittlement and fatigue, in: Proceedings of AIP International Conference, Bellingham, USA, 2003, pp. 15–21.10.1063/1.1570115 ↗
13. Duffour, P., Morbidini, M., Cawley, P.: Comparison between a type of vibro-acoustic modulation and damping measurement as NDT techniques. NDT E Int. 39, 123–131 (2006)10.1016/j.ndteint.2005.07.010 ↗
14. Buyukozturk, O., Tasdemir, M.A.: Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures. Springer, Berlin (2011)
15. L. J. Bond, N. G. Meyendorf. NDE and SHM in the age of industry 4.0, in: Proceedings of 12th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford, USA, 2019, pp. 3–15.10.12783/shm2019/32093 ↗
16. Lopez, A.B., Santos, J., Sousa, J.P., Santos, T.G., Quintino, L.: Phased array ultrasonic inspection of metal additive manufacturing parts. J. Nondestr. Eval. 38, 1–11 (2019)10.1007/s10921-018-0529-6 ↗
17. Schumacher, D., Meyendorf, N., Hakim, I., Ewert, U.: Defect recognition in CFRP components using various NDT methods within a smart manufacturing process. AIP Conf. Proc. 37, 020024-1–020024-11 (2018)
18. Senni, L., Laureti, S., Rizwan, M.K., Burrsascano, P., Hutchins, D.A., Davis, L.A.J., Ricci, M.: Multi-spectral near infrared NDE of polymer composites. NDT E Int. 102, 281–286 (2019)10.1016/j.ndteint.2018.12.012 ↗
19. Xiao, H., Chen, D., Xu, J., Guo, S.: Defects identification using the improved ultrasonic measurement model and support vector machines. NDT E Int. 111, 102223 (2020)10.1016/j.ndteint.2020.102223 ↗
20. Zanini, F., Sbettega, E., Sorgato, M., Camignato, S.: New approach for verifying the accuracy of X-ray computed tomography measurements of surface topographies in additively manufactured metal parts. J. Nondestr. Eval. 38, 1–10 (2019)10.1007/s10921-018-0547-4 ↗
21. G. Davis, P. Rajagopal, K. Balasubramaniam, S. Palanisamy, R. Nagarajah, Laser generation of narrowband lamb waves for in-situ inspection of additively manufactured metal components, in: Proceedings of 45th Annual Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vermont, USA, 2018, pp. 1–6.10.1063/1.5099801 ↗
22. Davis, G., Nagarajah, R., Palanisamy, S., Rashid, R.A.R., Rajagopal, P., Balasubramaniam, K.: Laser ultrasonic inspection of additive manufactured components. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 102, 2571–2579 (2019)10.1007/s00170-018-3046-y ↗
23. Matzkanin, G.A.: Selecting a nondestructive testing method: Visual inspection. AMMTIAC Q. 1, 7–10 (2006)
24. Arnolli, M.M., Buijze, M., Franken, M., de Jong, K.P., Brouwer, D.M., Broeders, I.A.M.J.: System for CT-guided needle placement in the thorax and abdomen: a design for clinical acceptability, applicability and usability. Int. J. Med. Robotics Comput. Assist. Surg. 14, 1–11 (2018)10.1002/rcs.1877 ↗
25. Kou, M., Liu, X., Tang, S., Wang, Y.: 3-D X-ray computed tomography on failure characteristics of rock-like materials under coupled hydromechanical loading. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 104, 102396 (2019)10.1016/j.tafmec.2019.102396 ↗
26. Kou, M., Liu, X., Tang, S., Wang, Y.: Measurement of taylor bubble shape in square channel by microfocus X-ray computed tomography for investigation of mass transfer. Flow Meas. Instrum. 53, 49–55 (2017)10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2016.06.004 ↗
27. Moroni, G., Petrò, S.: Segmentation-free geometrical verification of additively manufactured components by x-ray computed tomography. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 67, 519–522 (2018)10.1016/j.cirp.2018.04.011 ↗
28. Erdem, S., Gurbuz, E., Uysal, M.: Micro-mechanical analysis and X-ray computed tomography quantification of damage in concrete with industrial by-products and construction waste. J. Cleaner Prod. 189, 933–940 (2018)10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.089 ↗
29. Maire, E., Buffiere, J., Salvo, L., Blandin, J.J., Ludwig, W., Letang, J.M.: On the application of X-ray microtomography in the field of materials science. Adv. Eng. Mater. 3, 539–546 (2001)10.1002/1527-2648(200108)3:8<539::AID-ADEM539>3.0.CO;2-6 ↗
30. Zanini, F., Carmignato, S., Savio, E., Affatato, S.: Uncertainty determination for X-ray computed tomography wear assessment of polyethylene hip joint prostheses. Precis. Eng. 52, 477–483 (2018)10.1016/j.precisioneng.2018.02.009 ↗
31. Esposito, F., Gatto, A., Bassoli, E., Denti, L.: A study on the use of XCT and FEA to predict the elastic behavior of additive manufactured parts of cylindrical geometry. J. Nondestr. Eval. 37, 1–7 (2019)
32. Bourell, D., Kruth, J.P., Leu, M., Levy, G., Rosen, D., Beese, A.M., Clare, A.: Materials for additive manufacturing. CIRP Ann. 66, 659–681 (2017)10.1016/j.cirp.2017.05.009 ↗
33. Nadimpalli, V.K., Yang, L., Nagy, P.B.: In-situ interfacial quality assessment of ultrasonic additive manufacturing components using ultrasonic NDE. NDT E Int. 93, 117–130 (2018)10.1016/j.ndteint.2017.10.004 ↗
34. Zikmund, T., Salplachta, J., Zatocilova, A., Brinek, A., Pantelejev, L., Stepanek, R., Kountny, D., Palousek, D., Kaiser, J.: Computed tomography based procedure for reproducible porosity measurement of additive manufactured samples. NDT E Int. 103, 111–118 (2019)10.1016/j.ndteint.2019.02.008 ↗
35. Lou, S., Jiang, X., Sun, W., Zeng, W., Pagani, L., Scott, P.J.: Characterisation methods for powder bed fusion processed surface topography. Precis. Eng. 57, 1–15 (2019)10.1016/j.precisioneng.2018.09.007 ↗
36. Simonelli, M., Aboulkhair, N.T., Rasa, M., East, M., Tuck, C., Wildman, R., Salmons, O., Hague, R.: Towards digital metal additive manufacturing via high-temperature drop-on-demand jetting. Addit. Manuf. 30, 100930 (2019)
37. Khosravani, M.R., Zolfagharian, A., Jennings, M., Reinicke, T.: Structural performance of 3D-printed composites under various loads and environmental conditions. Polym. Test. 91, 106770 (2020)10.1016/j.polymertesting.2020.106770 ↗
38. Maskery, I., Aboulkhair, N.T., Corfield, M.R., Tuck, C., Clare, A.T., Leach, R.K., Wildman, R.D., Ashcroft, I.A., Hague, R.J.M.: Quantification and characterisation of porosity in selectively laser melted Al–Si10–Mg using X-ray computed tomography. Mater. Charact. 111, 193–204 (2016)10.1016/j.matchar.2015.12.001 ↗
39. H. Taheri, L. Koester, T. Bigelow, L. J. Bond. Finite element simulation and experimental verification of ultrasonic non-destructive inspection of defect in additively manufactured materials. in: Proceedings of 44th Annual Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, American Institute of Physics (AIP), Utah, USA, 2018, pp. 020011-1-020011-13.10.1063/1.5031508 ↗
40. Chiffre, L.D., Carmignato, S., Kruth, J.P., Schmitt, R., Weckenmann, A.: Industrial applications of computed tomography. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 63, 655–677 (2014)10.1016/j.cirp.2014.05.011 ↗
41. Thompson, A., Maskery, I., Leach, R.K.: X-ray computed tomography for additive manufacturing: a review. Meas. Sci. Technol. 27, 1–17 (2016)10.1088/0957-0233/27/7/072001 ↗
42. du Plessis, A., Yadroitsev, I., Yadroitsava, I., Roux, S.G.L.: X-ray microcomputed tomography in additive manufacturing: a review of the current technology and applications, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 5, 227–247 (2018)
43. du Plessis, A., Broeckhoven, C.: Looking deep into nature: a review of micro-computed tomography in biomimicry. Acta Biomater. 85, 27–40 (2019)10.1016/j.actbio.2018.12.014 ↗
44. du Plessis, A., Yadroitsava, I., Yadroitsev, I.: Effects of defects on mechanical properties in metal additive manufacturing: a review focusing on X-ray tomography insights. Mater. Des. 189, 108385 (2019)
45. Mazumder, J.: Design for metallic additive manufacturing machine with capability for “certify as you build”. Procedia CIRP 36, 187–192 (2015)10.1016/j.procir.2015.01.009 ↗
46. ASTM F2792 -12 Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, Standard. American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, USA (2012).
47. Khosravani, M.R., Reinicke, T.: On the environmental impacts of 3D printing technology. Appl. Mater. Today. 20, 100689 (2020)10.1016/j.apmt.2020.100689 ↗
48. ArabiHassen, A., Taheri, H., Vaidya, U.: Non-destructive investigation of thermoplastic reinforced composites. Compos. Part B 97, 244–254 (2016)10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.05.006 ↗
49. Villarraga-Gomez, H., Herazo, E.L., Smith, S.T.: X-ray computed tomography: from medical imaging to dimensional metrology. Precis. Eng. 60, 544–569 (2019)10.1016/j.precisioneng.2019.06.007 ↗
50. Hsieh, J.: Computed Tomography: Principles, Design, Artifacts. And Recent Advances. SPIE Press, Bellingham (2009)
51. duPlessis, A., IeRoux, S.G., Tshibalanganda, M.: Advancing X-ray micro computed tomography in Africa: going far, together. Sci. Afr. 3, e00061 (2019)
52. Taheri, H., Hassen, A.A.: Nondestructive ultrasonic inspection of composite materials: a comparative advantage of phased array ultrasonic. Appl. Sci. 9, 1–16 (2019)
53. Vavilov, V., Pan, Y.Y., Nesteruk, D.: Infrared thermographic inspection of water ingress in composite honeycomb panels. Appl. Opt. 55, 120–125 (2016)10.1364/AO.55.00D120 ↗
54. Gao, W., Kim, S.W., Bosse, H., Haitjema, H., Chen, Y.L., Lu, X.D., Knapp, W., Weckenmann, A., Estler, W.T., Kunzmann, H.: Measurement technologies for precision positioning. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 64, 773–796 (2015)10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.009 ↗
55. N. Meyendorf, S. Sthish, C. J. Druffner, J. L. Blackshire, J. P. Hoffmann, Q. Zhan, R. J. Andrews. High-resolution nondestructive evaluation at the center for materials diagnosis, in: Proceedings of The International Society for Optical Engineering, California, USA, 2004, pp. 256–265.10.1117/12.541351 ↗
56. N. Gandhi, R. Rose, A. Croxford, C. Ward. Developing a high-fidelity knowledge base for non-destructive testing and composite material products: a review, in: Proceedings of 58th Annual British Conference of Non-destructive testing, Telford, UK, 2019, pp. 1–12.
57. Tansel, I.N., Inanc, F., Reen, N., Chen, P., Wang, X., Kropas-Hughes, C., Yenilmez, A.: Neural network based thickness estimation from multiple radiographic images. J. Nondestr. Eval. 25, 53–66 (2006)10.1007/s10921-006-0011-8 ↗
58. Dong, J., Kim, B., Locquet, A., McKeon, P., Declercq, N., Citrin, D.S.: Nondestructive evaluation of forced delamination in glass fiber-reinforced composites by terahertz and ultrasonic waves. Compos. Part B 79, 667–675 (2015)10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.05.028 ↗
59. Mankovich, N.J., Cheeseman, A.M., Stoker, N.G.: The display of three dimensional anatomy with stereolithographic models. J. Digit. Imaging 3, 200–203 (1990)10.1007/BF03167610 ↗
60. Marro, A., Bandukwala, T., Mak, W.: Three-dimensional printing and medical imaging: a review of the methods and applications. Curr. Probl. Diagn. Radiol. 45, 2–9 (2016)10.1067/j.cpradiol.2015.07.009 ↗
61. F. Losano, G. Marinsek, A. M. Merlo, M. Ricci, Computed tomography in the automotive field. Development of a new engine head case study, in: Proceedings of Deutsche Gesellschaft Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung, Berlin, Germany, 1999, pp. 65–73.
62. Opris, A.L., Lonescu, S.C.: The life cycle of medical imaging technology. J. Inf. Syst. Oper. Manag. 10, 404–415 (2016)
63. du Plessis, A., le Roux, S.G., Steyn, F.: Quality investigation of 3D printer filament using laboratory X-ray tomography, 3D print. Addit. Manuf. 3, 1–6 (2013)
64. du Plessis, A., Broeckhoven, C., Yadroitsava, I., Yadroitsev, I., Hands, C.H., Kunju, R., Bhate, D.: Beautiful and functional: a review of biomimetic design in additive manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 27, 408–427 (2019)
65. Rivas Santos, V.M., Thompson, A., Sims-Waterhouse, D., Maskery, I., Wolliams, P., Leach, R.: Design and characterisation of an additive manufacturing benchmarking artefact following a design-for-metrology approach. Addit. Manuf. 32, 100964 (2020)
66. Leung, C.L.A., Marussi, S., Atwood, R.C., Towire, M., Withers, P.J., Lee, P.D.: In situ X-ray imaging of defect and molten pool dynamics in laser additive manufacturing. Nat. Commun. 9, 1355 (2018)10.1038/s41467-018-03734-7 ↗
67. Calta, N.P., Wang, J., Kiss, A.M., Martin, A.A., Depond, P.J., Guss, G.M., Thampy, V., Fong, A.Y., Weker, J.N., Stone, K.H., Tassone, C.J., Kramer, M.J., Toney, M.F., Buuren, A.V., Matthews, M.J.: An instrument for in situ time-resolved X-ray imaging and diffraction of laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 89, 055101-1–55108 (2018)10.1063/1.5017236 ↗
68. Wolff, S.J., Wu, H., Parab, N., Zhao, C., Ehmann, K.F., Sun, T., Cao, J.: In-situ high-speed X-ray imaging of piezo-driven directed energy deposition additive manufacturing. Sci. Rep. 9, 1–14 (2019)10.1038/s41598-018-37186-2 ↗
69. Tammas-Williams, S., Withers, P.J., Todd, I., Prangnell, P.B.: Porosity regrowth during heat treatment of hot isostatically pressed additively manufactured titanium components. Scr. Mater. 12202, 72–76 (2016)10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.05.002 ↗
70. Khosravani, M.R.: Influences of defects on the performance of adhesively bonded sandwich joints. Key Eng. Mater. 789, 45–50 (2018)10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.789.45 ↗
71. Montinaro, N., Cerniglia, D., Pitarresi, G.: Defect detection in additively manufactured titanium prosthesis by flying laser scanning thermography. Procedia Struct. Integr 12, 165–172 (2018)10.1016/j.prostr.2018.11.098 ↗
72. Kong, L., Ostadhassan, M., Li, C., Tamimi, N.: Pore characterization of 3D-printed gypsum rocks: a comprehensive approach. J. Mater. Sci. 53, 5063–5078 (2018)10.1007/s10853-017-1953-1 ↗
73. Samei, J., Amirmaleki, M., Shirinzadeh Dastgiri, M., Marinelli, C., Green, D.E.: In-situ X-ray tomography analysis of the evolution of pores during deformation of AlSi10Mg fabricated by selective laser melting. Mater. Lett. 255, 126512 (2019)10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126512 ↗
74. Holzmond, O., Li, X.: In situ real time defect detection of 3D printed parts. Addit. Manuf. 17, 135–142 (2017)
75. Grasso, M., Demir, A.G., Previtali, B., Colosimo, B.M.: In situ monitoring of selective laser melting of zinc powder via infrared imaging of the process plume. Rob. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 49, 229–239 (2018)10.1016/j.rcim.2017.07.001 ↗
76. Cerniglia, D., Montinaro, N.: Defect detection in additively manufactured components: laser ultrasound and laser thermography comparison. Procedia Struct. Integr. 8, 154–162 (2018)10.1016/j.prostr.2017.12.016 ↗
77. Smith, T.R., Sugar, J.D., Schoenung, J.M., Marchi, C.S.: Relationship between manufacturing defects and fatigue properties of additive manufactured austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 765, 138268 (2019)10.1016/j.msea.2019.138268 ↗
78. Pinto, F.C., Souza Filho, I.R., Sandim, M.J.R., Sandim, H.R.Z.: Defects in parts manufactured by selective laser melting caused by δ- ferritein reused 316L steel powder feedstock. Addit. Manuf. 31, 100979 (2020)
79. Khairallah, S.A., Anderson, A.T., Rubenchik, A., King, W.E.: Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones. Acta Mater. 108, 36–45 (2016)10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014 ↗
80. Van Bael, S., Kerckhofs, G., Moesen, M., Pyka, G., Schrooten, J., Kruth, J.P.: Micro-CT-based improvement of geometrical and mechanical controllability of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V porous structures. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 528, 7423–7431 (2011)10.1016/j.msea.2011.06.045 ↗
81. Harbe, N.W., Heinl, P., Flinn, B., Korner, C., Bordia, R.K.: Compression compression fatigue of selective electron beam melted cellular titanium (Ti-6Al-4V). J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 99, 313–320 (2011)
82. Truscello, S., Kerckhofs, G., Van Bael, S., Pyka, G., Van Oosterwyck, J.S.H.: Prediction of permeability of regular scaffolds for skeletal tissue engineering: a combined computational and experimental study. Acta Biomater. 8, 1648–1658 (2012)10.1016/j.actbio.2011.12.021 ↗
83. Van Bael, S., Chai, Y.C., Truscello, S., Moesen, M., Kerckhofs, G., Van Oosterwyck, H., Kruth, J.P., Schrooten, J.: The effect of pore geometry on the in vitro biological behavior of human periosteum-derived cells seeded on selective laser-melted Ti6Al4V bone scaffolds. Acta Biomater. 8, 2824–2834 (2012)10.1016/j.actbio.2012.04.001 ↗
84. Leuders, S., Thöne, M., Riemer, A., Niendorf, T., Troster, T., Richard, H.A., Maier, H.J.: On the mechanical behaviour of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting: fatigue resistance and crack growth performance. Int. J. Fatigue 48, 300–307 (2013)10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2012.11.011 ↗
85. Ziolkowski, G., Chlebus, E., Szmczyk, P., Kurazc, J.: Application of X-ray CT method for discontinuity and porosity detection in 316L stainless steel parts produced with SLM technology. Arch. Civil. Mech. Eng. 14, 608–614 (2014)10.1016/j.acme.2014.02.003 ↗
86. L. J. Bond, N. J. Gray, F. J. Margetan, D. Utrata, I. E. Anderson, “NDE for Adding Value to Materials from Metal Powder Processing,” Advances in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials – 2014, Proceedings of the 2014 World Congress on Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, Orlando, Florida, compiled by R. A. Chernenkoff and W. B. James, Metal Powder Industries Federation. (2014), Part 11, pp. 1944–1959.
87. Taheri, H., Shoaib, M.R.M., Koester, L.W., Bigelow, T.A., Collins, P.C., Bond, L.J.: Powder-based additive manufacturing—a review of types of defects, generation mechanisms, detection, property evaluation and metrology. Int. J. Addit. Subtractive Mater. Manuf. 1, 172–209 (2017)
88. Dupin, S., Lame, O., Barres, C., Charmeau, J.Y.: Microstructural origin of physical and mechanical properties of polyamide 12 processed by laser sintering. Eur. Polym. J. 48, 1611–1621 (2012)10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.06.007 ↗
89. Rouholamin, D., Hopkinson, N.: An investigation on the suitability of micro-computed tomography as a non-destructive technique to assess the morphology of laser sintered nylon 12 parts. J. Eng. Manuf. 228, 1529–1542 (2014)10.1177/0954405414522209 ↗
90. Ghita, O.R., James, E., Trimble, R., Evans, K.E.: Physico-chemical behaviour of Poly (Ether Ketone) (PEK) in high temperature laser sintering (HT-LS). J. Mater. Process. Technol. 214, 969–978 (2014)10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.11.007 ↗
91. Wang, X., Zhao, L., Fuh, J.Y.H., Lee, H.P.: Effect of porosity on mechanical properties of 3D printed polymers:experiments and micromechanical modeling based on X-ray computed tomography analysis. Polymers 11, 1–20 (2019)
92. Siddique, S., Imran, M., Rauer, M., Kaloudis, M., Wycisk, E., Emmelmann, C., Walther, F.: Computed tomography for characterization of fatigue performance of selective laser melted parts. Mater. Des. 83, 661–669 (2015)10.1016/j.matdes.2015.06.063 ↗
93. Leuders, S., Vollmer, M., Brenne, F., Tröster, T., Niendorf, T.: Fatigue strength prediction for titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 46, 1–8 (2015)10.1007/s11661-015-2864-x ↗
94. Biswal, R., Zhang, X., Shamir, M., Al Mamun, A., Awd, M., Walther, F., Khadar Syed, A.: Interrupted fatigue testing with periodic tomography to monitor porositydefects in wire + arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. Addit. Manuf. 28, 517–527 (2019)
95. Yan, C., Hao, L., Hussein, A., Raymont, D.: Evaluations of cellular lattice structures manufactured using selective laser melting. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 62, 32–38 (2012)10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2012.06.002 ↗
96. du Plessis, A., Sperling, P., Beerlink, A., du Preez, W.B., le Roux, S.G.: Standard method for micro CT-based additive manufacturing quality control 4: metal powder analysis. MethodsX 5, 1336–1345 (2018)10.1016/j.mex.2018.10.021 ↗
97. Aboulkhair, N.T., Everitt, N.M., Ashcroft, I., Tuck, C.: Reducing porosity in AlSi10Mg parts processed by selective laser melting. Addit. Manuf. 1, 77–86 (2014)
98. Karme, A., Kallonen, A., Matilainen, V.P., Piili, H., Salminen, A.: Possibilities of CT scanning as analysis method in laser additive manufacturing. Phys. Procedia 78, 347–356 (2015)10.1016/j.phpro.2015.11.049 ↗
99. du Plessis, A., le Roux, S.G., Els, J., Booysen, G., Blaine, D.C.: Application of microCT to the non-destructive testing of an additive manufactured titanium component. Case Stud. Nondestr. Test. Eval. 4, 1–7 (2015)10.1016/j.csndt.2015.09.001 ↗
100. Damon, J., Dietrich, S., Vollert, F., Gibmeier, J., Schulze, V.: Process dependent porosity and the influence of shot peening on porosity morphology regarding selective laser melted AlSi10Mg parts. Addit. Manuf. 20, 77–89 (2018)