Global vitrification and disposal of high-level nuclear waste: Historical insights, current status, and future prospects

The global management of high-level radioactive waste (HLW) presents one of the most significant technical and policy challenges in the nuclear energy sector. This article provides a comprehensive review of the vitrification and geological disposal strategies employed by nations with active nuclear programs, including the United States, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, India, China, and Canada. The historical development of HLW glass waste forms, the evolution of vitrification technologies—such as Joule-heated ceramic melters (JHCM) and cold crucible induction melters (CCIM)—and the role of borosilicate and phosphate glasses are critically examined. While vitrification is a mature and widely accepted technology for HLW immobilization, the composition of glass waste forms and the specific vitrification processes vary across countries due to differences in waste chemistry, fuel cycle strategies, and regulatory frameworks. The article also discusses interim storage practices and progress toward establishing deep geological repositories, with an emphasis on technical, logistical, and socio-political challenges. As global interest in nuclear energy resurges to meet climate goals and energy demands, HLW volumes are expected to increase. In this context, this review highlights the need for innovation in waste form design, improved waste loading strategies, and international collaboration to ensure the safe and sustainable management of HLW in the decades ahead.