Electrochemical catalysts for nitrogen reduction: progress, challenges, and sustainable solutions
Source abstract
Abstract
Electrochemical nitrogen reduction (NR) is a promising pathway for sustainable ammonia (NH3) production, crucial for reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change. Various methods and advanced materials have been used to accelerate the NR reaction rate. However, the long-term sustainability and economic feasibility of many catalytic materials remain insufficiently studied. This review examines the roles of various catalysts, including metal-based, homogeneous, and heterogeneous catalysts, in facilitating NR reactions. The integration of advanced materials, such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and photocatalytic nanoparticles, is discussed for their potential to enhance catalytic efficiency. The review highlights the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic analysis (TEA) in evaluating the environmental and economic feasibility of NR processes. It also addresses the challenges and opportunities associated with green synthesis methods and large-scale application of MOFs. Future directions emphasise the need for interdisciplinary research, artificial intelligence (AI) advancements, and innovative energy storage solutions. This comprehensive analysis aims to guide the development of efficient, scalable, and sustainable NR technologies for a carbon–neutral future.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Ammonia Synthesis and Nitrogen Reduction · Advanced Photocatalysis Techniques · Caching and Content Delivery
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Yuan Y, Lei A (2020) Is electrosynthesis always green and advantageous compared to traditional methods? Nat Commun 11:802. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14322-z10.1038/s41467-020-14322-z ↗
2. Marken F, Wadhawan JD (2019) Multiphase methods in organic electrosynthesis. Acc Chem Res 52:3325–3338. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.9b0048010.1021/acs.accounts.9b00480 ↗
3. Fazleeva RR, Nasretdinova GR, Evtyugin VG et al (2022) Electrosynthesis of nanocomposites of Ag, Au, Pd nanoparticles with aluminum(III), zinc(II), and titanium(IV) oxide-hydroxides. J Solid State Electrochem 26:2271–2285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-022-05248-110.1007/s10008-022-05248-1 ↗
4. Han Z, Wu P, He M et al (2022) Ammonia synthesis by electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction—a novel energy storage way. J Energy Storage 55:10568410.1016/j.est.2022.105684 ↗
5. Özkar S (2020) Transition metal nanoparticle catalysts in releasing hydrogen from the methanolysis of ammonia borane. Int J Hydrogen Energy 45:7881–789110.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.125 ↗
6. Shaker M, Ghazvini AAS, Shahalizade T et al (2023) A review of nitrogen-doped carbon materials for lithium-ion battery anodes. New Carbon Mater 38:247–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-5805(23)60724-310.1016/S1872-5805(23)60724-3 ↗
7. Prasanna M, Logeshwaran N, Ramakrishnan S, Yoo DJ (2024) Metallic 1T-N-WS2/WO3 heterojunctions featuring interface-engineered Cu–S configuration for selective electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction. Small 20:230616510.1002/smll.202306165 ↗
8. Prasanna M, Ramakrishnan S, Yoo DJ (2024) Investigating the influence of oxygen doping in modulating product distribution for electrocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction. Appl Surf Sci 664:16020710.1016/j.apsusc.2024.160207 ↗
9. Houlton BZ, Wang Y-P, Vitousek PM, Field CB (2008) A unifying framework for dinitrogen fixation in the terrestrial biosphere. Nature 454:327–33010.1038/nature07028 ↗
10. Zehr JP, Capone DG (2020) Changing perspectives in marine nitrogen fixation. Science 368:eaay951410.1126/science.aay9514 ↗
11. Hoffman BM, Lukoyanov D, Yang Z-Y et al (2014) Mechanism of nitrogen fixation by nitrogenase: the next stage. Chem Rev 114:4041–406210.1021/cr400641x ↗
12. Oshikiri T, Ueno K, Misawa H (2014) Plasmon-induced ammonia synthesis through nitrogen photofixation with visible light irradiation. Angew Chem 126:9960–996310.1002/ange.201404748 ↗
13. Monyoncho EA, Dasog M (2021) Photocatalytic plasmon-enhanced nitrogen reduction to ammonia. Adv Energy Sustain Res 2:200005510.1002/aesr.202000055 ↗
14. Zhang K, Ai Z, Huang M et al (2021) Type II cuprous oxide/graphitic carbon nitride pn heterojunctions for enhanced photocatalytic nitrogen fixation. J Catal 395:273–28110.1016/j.jcat.2021.01.013 ↗
15. Zhao Y, Zhao Y, Shi R et al (2019) Tuning oxygen vacancies in ultrathin TiO2 nanosheets to boost photocatalytic nitrogen fixation up to 700 nm. Adv Mater 31:180648210.1002/adma.201806482 ↗
16. Brown KA, Harris DF, Wilker MB et al (2016) Light-driven dinitrogen reduction catalyzed by a CdS: nitrogenase MoFe protein biohybrid. Science 352:448–45010.1126/science.aaf2091 ↗
17. Chang S, Xu X (2020) Au nanocrystals decorated TiO2 nanotubes for photocatalytic nitrogen fixation into ammonia. Inorg Chem Front 7:620–62410.1039/C9QI01287G ↗
18. Jia H, Du A, Zhang H et al (2019) Site-selective growth of crystalline ceria with oxygen vacancies on gold nanocrystals for near-infrared nitrogen photofixation. J Am Chem Soc 141:5083–508610.1021/jacs.8b13062 ↗
19. Wang S, Hai X, Ding X et al (2017) Light-switchable oxygen vacancies in ultrafine Bi5O7Br nanotubes for boosting solar-driven nitrogen fixation in pure water. Adv Mater 29:170177410.1002/adma.201701774 ↗
20. Cui C, Zhang H, Luo Z (2020) Nitrogen reduction reaction on small iron clusters supported by N-doped graphene: a theoretical study of the atomically precise active-site mechanism. Nano Res 13:2280–228810.1007/s12274-020-2847-0 ↗
21. Ma B, Zhao H, Li T et al (2021) Iron-group electrocatalysts for ambient nitrogen reduction reaction in aqueous media. Nano Res 14:555–56910.1007/s12274-020-3049-5 ↗
22. Shi M, Bao D, Wulan B et al (2017) Au sub-nanoclusters on TiO2 toward highly efficient and selective electrocatalyst for N2 conversion to NH3 at ambient conditions. Adv Mater 29:160655010.1002/adma.201606550 ↗
23. Song W, Xie K, Wang J et al (2021) Density functional theory study of transition metal single-atoms anchored on graphyne as efficient electrocatalysts for the nitrogen reduction reaction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 23:10418–1042810.1039/D1CP00690H ↗
24. Ling C, Niu X, Li Q et al (2018) Metal-free single atom catalyst for N2 fixation driven by visible light. J Am Chem Soc 140:14161–1416810.1021/jacs.8b07472 ↗
25. Wu T, Li X, Zhu X et al (2020) P-doped graphene toward enhanced electrocatalytic N2 reduction. Chem Commun 56:1831–183410.1039/C9CC09179C ↗
26. Zhang W, Mao K, Low J et al (2021) Working-in-tandem mechanism of multi-dopants in enhancing electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction performance of carbon-based materials. Nano Res 14:3234–323910.1007/s12274-021-3315-1 ↗
27. Choi C, Back S, Kim N-Y et al (2018) Suppression of hydrogen evolution reaction in electrochemical N2 reduction using single-atom catalysts: a computational guideline. ACS Catal 8:7517–752510.1021/acscatal.8b00905 ↗
28. Fei H, Dong J, Arellano-Jiménez MJ et al (2015) Atomic cobalt on nitrogen-doped graphene for hydrogen generation. Nat Commun 6:1–810.1038/ncomms9668 ↗
29. Lü F, Zhao S, Guo R et al (2019) Nitrogen-coordinated single Fe sites for efficient electrocatalytic N2 fixation in neutral media. Nano Energy 61:420–42710.1016/j.nanoen.2019.04.092 ↗
30. Liu Y, Zhuang Z, Liu Y et al (2024) Shear-strained Pd single-atom electrocatalysts for nitrate reduction to ammonia. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 63:e202411396. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.20241139610.1002/anie.202411396 ↗
31. Qiao B, Wang A, Yang X et al (2011) Single-atom catalysis of CO oxidation using Pt 1/FeO x. Nat Chem 3:634–64110.1038/nchem.1095 ↗
32. Wang A, Li J, Zhang T (2018) Heterogeneous single-atom catalysis. Nat Rev Chem 2:65–8110.1038/s41570-018-0010-1 ↗
33. Wang H, Liu J-X, Allard LF et al (2019) Surpassing the single-atom catalytic activity limit through paired Pt-O-Pt ensemble built from isolated Pt1 atoms. Nat Commun 10:1–1210.1038/s41467-018-07882-8 ↗
34. Li Y, Zhang Q, Li C et al (2019) Atomically dispersed metal dimer species with selective catalytic activity for nitrogen electrochemical reduction. J Mater Chem A 7:22242–2224710.1039/C9TA07845B ↗
35. Yao C, Guo N, Xi S et al (2020) Atomically-precise dopant-controlled single cluster catalysis for electrochemical nitrogen reduction. Nat Commun 11:1–1010.1038/s41467-020-18080-w ↗
36. Vorobyeva E, Fako E, Chen Z et al (2019) Atom-by-atom resolution of structure–function relations over low-nuclearity metal catalysts. Angew Chem 131:8816–882110.1002/ange.201902136 ↗
37. Ji S, Chen Y, Fu Q et al (2017) Confined pyrolysis within metal–organic frameworks to form uniform Ru3 clusters for efficient oxidation of alcohols. J Am Chem Soc 139:9795–979810.1021/jacs.7b05018 ↗
38. Baig N, Kammakakam I, Falath W (2021) Nanomaterials: a review of synthesis methods, properties, recent progress, and challenges. Mater Adv 2:1821–1871. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0MA00807A10.1039/D0MA00807A ↗
39. Saleh HM, Hassan AI (2023) Synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials for application in cost-effective electrochemical devices. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15141089110.3390/su151410891 ↗
40. Aryal S, Park H, Leary JF, Key J (2019) Top-down fabrication-based nano/microparticles for molecular imaging and drug delivery. Int J Nanomedicine 14:6631–6644. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S21203710.2147/IJN.S212037 ↗
41. Needham D, Arslanagic A, Glud K et al (2016) Bottom up design of nanoparticles for anti-cancer diapeutics: “put the drug in the cancer’s food.” J Drug Target 24:836–85610.1080/1061186X.2016.1238092 ↗
42. Lei Y, Huo J, Liao H (2018) Fabrication and catalytic mechanism study of CeO2-Fe2O3-ZnO mixed oxides on double surfaces of polyimide substrate using ion-exchange technique. Mater Sci Semicond Process 74:154–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2017.10.03210.1016/j.mssp.2017.10.032 ↗
43. Mishra P, Thakur S, Mahapatra DM et al (2018) Impacts of nano-metal oxides on hydrogen production in anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent—a novel approach. Int J Hydrogen Energy 43:2666–2676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.12.10810.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.12.108 ↗
44. Su L, Shi X, Guo G et al (2013) Stabilization of sewage sludge in the presence of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI): abatement of odor and improvement of biogas production. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 15:461–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0150-910.1007/s10163-013-0150-9 ↗
45. Issa B, Obaidat IM, Albiss BA, Haik Y (2013) Magnetic nanoparticles: surface effects and properties related to biomedicine applications. Int J Mol Sci 14:21266–21305. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14112126610.3390/ijms141121266 ↗
46. Jamkhande PG, Ghule NW, Bamer AH, Kalaskar MG (2019) Metal nanoparticles synthesis: an overview on methods of preparation, advantages and disadvantages, and applications. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 53:10117410.1016/j.jddst.2019.101174 ↗
47. Maicas M, Sanz M, Cui H et al (2010) Magnetic properties and morphology of Ni nanoparticles synthesized in gas phase. J Magn Magn Mater 322:3485–348910.1016/j.jmmm.2010.06.050 ↗
48. Zhang X, Lai Z, Liu Z et al (2015) A facile and universal top-down method for preparation of monodisperse transition-metal dichalcogenide nanodots. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 54:5425–542810.1002/anie.201501071 ↗
49. Karthikeyan C, Ranjani M, Kim AR, Yoo DJ (2016) Synthesis of iron nanoparticles using Azadirachta indica extract and its catalytic activity toward nitrophenol reduction. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 16:2527–253310.1166/jnn.2016.10793 ↗
50. Wang YJ, Fan H, Ignaszak A et al (2018) Compositing doped-carbon with metals, non-metals, metal oxides, metal nitrides and other materials to form bifunctional electrocatalysts to enhance metal-air battery oxygen reduction and evolution reactions. Chem Eng J 348:416–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.04.20810.1016/j.cej.2018.04.208 ↗
51. Xu Y, Wang M, Yu Q, Zhang Y (2020) Enhancing methanogenesis from anaerobic digestion of propionate with addition of Fe oxides supported on conductive carbon cloth. Bioresour Technol 302:122796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.12279610.1016/j.biortech.2020.122796 ↗
52. Gabrielli L, Rosa-Gastaldo D, Salvia MV et al (2018) Detection and identification of designer drugs by nanoparticle-based NMR chemosensing. Chem Sci 9:4777–4784. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8sc01283k10.1039/c8sc01283k ↗
53. Mozaffari S, Li W, Thompson C et al (2017) Colloidal nanoparticle size control: experimental and kinetic modeling investigation of the ligand-metal binding role in controlling the nucleation and growth kinetics. Nanoscale 9:13772–13785. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7nr04101b10.1039/c7nr04101b ↗
54. Talapin DV, Lee J-S, Kovalenko MV, Shevchenko EV (2010) Prospects of colloidal nanocrystals for electronic and optoelectronic applications. Chem Rev 110:389–458. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900137k10.1021/cr900137k ↗
55. Perala SRK, Kumar S (2014) On the two-step mechanism for synthesis of transition-metal nanoparticles. Langmuir 30:12703–12711. https://doi.org/10.1021/la503199m10.1021/la503199m ↗
56. Watzky MA, Finke RG (1997) Transition metal nanocluster formation kinetic and mechanistic studies. A new mechanism when hydrogen is the reductant: slow, continuous nucleation and fast autocatalytic surface growth. J Am Chem Soc 119:10382–10400. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja970510210.1021/ja9705102 ↗
57. Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ (2006) Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.00410.1016/j.watres.2006.08.004 ↗
58. Chang PR, Yu J, Ma X, Anderson DP (2011) Polysaccharides as stabilizers for the synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles. Carbohydr Polym 83:640–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.08.02710.1016/j.carbpol.2010.08.027 ↗
59. Otero-González L, García-Saucedo C, Field JA, Sierra-Álvarez R (2013) Toxicity of TiO2, ZrO2, Fe0, Fe2O3, and Mn2O3 nanoparticles to the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Chemosphere 93:1201–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.07510.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.075 ↗
60. Patumsawad S (2011) 2nd generation biofuels: technical challenge and R&d opportunity in Thailand. J Sustain Energy Env 1(Special Issue):47–50
61. Peng X, Chu X, Wang S et al (2017) Bio-power performance enhancement in microbial fuel cell using Ni–ferrite decorated anode. RSC Adv 7:16027–1603210.1039/C7RA01253E ↗
62. Feng H, Liang Y, Guo K et al (2016) TiO2 nanotube arrays modified titanium: a stable, scalable, and cost-effective bioanode for microbial fuel cells. Environ Sci Technol Lett 3:420–42410.1021/acs.estlett.6b00410 ↗
63. Di Palma L, Bavasso I, Sarasini F et al (2018) Synthesis, characterization and performance evaluation of Fe3O4/PES nano composite membranes for microbial fuel cell. Eur Polym J 99:222–22910.1016/j.eurpolymj.2017.12.037 ↗
64. Yang G, Chen D, Lv P et al (2016) Core-shell Au-Pd nanoparticles as cathode catalysts for microbial fuel cell applications. Sci Rep 6:1–910.1038/s41598-016-0001-8 ↗
65. Soliman NK (2019) Factors affecting CO oxidation reaction over nanosized materials: a review. J Mater Res Technol 8:2395–2407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.12.01210.1016/j.jmrt.2018.12.012 ↗
66. Denkwitz Y, Schumacher B, Kučerová G, Behm RJ (2009) Activity, stability, and deactivation behavior of supported Au/TiO2 catalysts in the CO oxidation and preferential CO oxidation reaction at elevated temperatures. J Catal 267:78–8810.1016/j.jcat.2009.07.018 ↗
67. Burange AS, Reddy KP, Gopinath CS et al (2018) Role of palladium crystallite size on CO oxidation over CeZrO4-δ supported Pd catalysts. Mol Catal 455:1–5
68. Joo SH, Park JY, Renzas JR et al (2010) Size effect of ruthenium nanoparticles in catalytic carbon monoxide oxidation. Nano Lett 10:2709–271310.1021/nl101700j ↗
69. Dang S, Yang H, Gao P et al (2019) A review of research progress on heterogeneous catalysts for methanol synthesis from carbon dioxide hydrogenation. Catal Today 330:61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2018.04.02110.1016/j.cattod.2018.04.021 ↗
70. Li Z, Luo M, Li B et al (2021) 3-D hierarchical micro/nano-structures of porous Bi2WO6: controlled hydrothermal synthesis and enhanced photocatalytic performances. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 313:110830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2020.11083010.1016/j.micromeso.2020.110830 ↗
71. Sharma G, Kumar A, Sharma S et al (2019) Novel development of nanoparticles to bimetallic nanoparticles and their composites: a review. J King Saud Univ 31:257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2017.06.01210.1016/j.jksus.2017.06.012 ↗
72. Campelo JM, Luna D, Luque R et al (2009) Sustainable preparation of supported metal nanoparticles and their applications in catalysis. ChemSusChem 2:18–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.20080022710.1002/cssc.200800227 ↗
73. Crawley JWM, Gow IE, Lawes N et al (2022) Heterogeneous trimetallic nanoparticles as catalysts. Chem Rev 122:6795–6849. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c0049310.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00493 ↗
74. Hersbach TJP, Koper MTM (2021) Cathodic corrosion: 21st century insights into a 19th century phenomenon. Curr Opin Electrochem 26:10065310.1016/j.coelec.2020.100653 ↗
75. Abdinejad M, Hossain MN, Kraatz H-B (2020) Homogeneous and heterogeneous molecular catalysts for electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide. RSC Adv 10:38013–3802310.1039/D0RA07973A ↗
76. Seger B, Robert M, Jiao F (2023) Best practices for electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide. Nat Sustain 6:236–23810.1038/s41893-022-01034-z ↗
77. Palanimuthu N, Subramaniam MR, P. MA et al (2024) Surface area-enhanced cerium and sulfur-modified hierarchical bismuth oxide nanosheets for electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction to formate. Small 20(40):2400913. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.20240091310.1002/smll.202400913 ↗
78. Cui Y, Sun C, He Y et al (2025) Boosting electrocatalytic nitrate reduction to ammonia on a hierarchical nanoporous Ag,Ni-codoped Cu catalyst via trimetallic synergistic and nanopore enrichment effects. Nano Lett 25:837–844. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c0537610.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05376 ↗
79. Su D-J, Xiang S-Q, Gao S-T et al (2023) Kinetic understanding of catalytic selectivity and product distribution of electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction reaction. JACS Au 3:905–91810.1021/jacsau.3c00002 ↗
80. Harris DF, Lukoyanov DA, Shaw S et al (2018) Mechanism of N2 reduction catalyzed by Fe-nitrogenase involves reductive elimination of H2. Biochemistry 57:701–71010.1021/acs.biochem.7b01142 ↗
81. Li C, Zheng Y, Li M et al (2022) Enhancement of ammonia synthesis activity on La2O3-supported Ru catalyst by addition of ceria. Int J Hydrogen Energy 47:23240–2324810.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.05.133 ↗
82. Wang T, Guo Z, Zhang X et al (2023) Recent progress of iron-based electrocatalysts for nitrogen reduction reaction. J Mater Sci Technol 140:121–13410.1016/j.jmst.2022.07.063 ↗
83. Khalil IE, Xue C, Liu W et al (2021) The role of defects in metal–organic frameworks for nitrogen reduction reaction: when defects switch to features. Adv Funct Mater 31:201005210.1002/adfm.202010052 ↗
84. Li X, Wang S, Li L et al (2020) Progress and perspective for in situ studies of CO2 reduction. J Am Chem Soc 142:9567–9581
85. Zhang J, Ji Y, Wang P et al (2020) Adsorbing and activating N2 on heterogeneous Au–Fe3O4 nanoparticles for N2 fixation. Adv Funct Mater 30:190657910.1002/adfm.201906579 ↗
86. Lv J, Tian Z, Dai K et al (2019) Interface and defect engineer of titanium dioxide supported palladium or platinum for tuning the activity and selectivity of electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction. J Colloid Interface Sci 553:126–13510.1016/j.jcis.2019.05.105 ↗
87. Lan R, Irvine JTS, Tao S (2013) Synthesis of ammonia directly from air and water at ambient temperature and pressure. Sci Rep 3:114510.1038/srep01145 ↗
88. Kugler K, Luhn M, Schramm JA et al (2015) Galvanic deposition of Rh and Ru on randomly structured Ti felts for the electrochemical NH 3 synthesis. Phys Chem Phys 17:3768–378210.1039/C4CP05501B ↗
89. Wang J, Yu L, Hu L et al (2018) Ambient ammonia synthesis via palladium-catalyzed electrohydrogenation of dinitrogen at low overpotential. Nat Commun 9:1795. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04213-910.1038/s41467-018-04213-9 ↗
90. Liao W, Qi L, Wang Y et al (2021) Interfacial engineering promoting electrosynthesis of ammonia over Mo/phosphotungstic acid with high performance. Adv Funct Mater 31:200915110.1002/adfm.202009151 ↗
91. Johnson D, Hunter B, Christie J et al (2022) Ti2N nitride MXene evokes the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism to achieve high selectivity for nitrogen reduction reaction. Sci Rep 12:657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-04640-710.1038/s41598-021-04640-7 ↗
92. Gao W-Y, Hao Y-C, Su X et al (2019) Morphology-dependent electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction on Ag triangular nanoplates. Chem Commun 55:10705–10708. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9CC04691G10.1039/C9CC04691G ↗
93. Jeong E-Y, Yoo C-Y, Jung CH et al (2017) Electrochemical ammonia synthesis mediated by titanocene dichloride in aqueous electrolytes under ambient conditions. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 5:9662–9666. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b0290810.1021/acssuschemeng.7b02908 ↗
94. Nash J, Yang X, Anibal J et al (2017) Electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction on noble metal catalysts in proton and hydroxide exchange membrane electrolyzers. J Electrochem Soc 164:F1712–F1716. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0071802jes10.1149/2.0071802jes ↗
95. Mushtaq MA, Arif M, Yasin G et al (2023) Recent developments in heterogeneous electrocatalysts for ambient nitrogen reduction to ammonia: activity, challenges, and future perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 176:11319710.1016/j.rser.2023.113197 ↗
96. Yang D, Li J, Xiao M et al (2023) Atomically dispersed metal catalysts towards nitrogen reduction for ammonia: from homogeneous to heterogeneous. Chem Eng J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.14377610.1016/j.cej.2023.143776 ↗
97. Liu Y, Zheng Z, Jabeen S et al (2024) Mechanochemical route to fabricate an efficient nitrate reduction electrocatalyst. Nano Res 17:4889–4897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-024-6478-810.1007/s12274-024-6478-8 ↗
98. Zhou H, Zou X, Wu X et al (2019) Coordination engineering in cobalt–nitrogen-functionalized materials for CO2 reduction. J Phys Chem Lett 10:6551–6557. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b0213210.1021/acs.jpclett.9b02132 ↗
99. Du Z, Liang J, Li S et al (2021) Alkylthiol surface engineering: an effective strategy toward enhanced electrocatalytic N2-to-NH3 fixation by a CoP nanoarray. J Mater Chem A 9:13861–13866. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TA02424H10.1039/D1TA02424H ↗
100. Yang Y, Wang S-Q, Wen H et al (2019) Nanoporous gold embedded ZIF composite for enhanced electrochemical nitrogen fixation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 58:15362–1536610.1002/anie.201909770 ↗