New insights into the application of nanoghosts as theranostic tools with an emphasis on cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), along with myocardial infarction and inflammatory heart disease, account for the world’s most expansive health concerns. Even though the knowledge acquired about the cardiovascular system in the last decades has elevated the life expectancy of people with these disorders, CVDs remain one of the major causes of death. Lately, nanotechnology has been well suited to address the primary issues of many diseases, including CVDs. Nanocarriers are currently used for the treatment of heart-related diseases. Most of them have a very complex nature, and most of them present problems related to their enhanced permeability and retention effect or their high immunogenicity degree, among others. In this sense, the current research focuses on developing alternative biomimetic nanocarriers to deliver therapeutic compounds to the target sites more efficiently. In this scenario, cell membrane–derived nanoghosts (NGs) constitute a desirable alternative due to their innate nature of homing and targeting abilities. In this review, we discuss in detail the main methods employed for the preparation of NGs and the most essential and representative tools applied for their characterization. We also reviewed the different molecular pathways and interactions involved in transporting the NGs from the administration sites to the regions of interest. Finally, we give new insights into the advantages and limitations of applying NGs as a theranostic approach for CVDs.