Reinforced plastics and aerogels by nanocrystalline cellulose
Source abstract
Abstract
Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC), a rigid rod-like nanoscale material, can be produced from cellulosic biomass in powder, liquid, or gel forms by acid and chemical hydrolysis. Owing to its unique and exceptional physicochemical properties, the incorporation of a small amount of NCC into plastic enhances the mechanical strength of the latter by several orders of magnitudes. Carbohydrate-based NCC poses no serious environmental concerns, providing further impetus for the development and applications of this green and renewable biomaterial to fabricate lightweight and biodegradable composites and aerogels. Surface functionalization of NCC remains the main focus of NCC research to tailor its properties for dispersion in hydrophilic or hydrophobic media. It is of uttermost importance to develop tools and protocols for imaging of NCC in a complex matrix and quantify its reinforcement effect.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Cellulose Research Studies · Polysaccharides and Plant Cell Walls · Nanocomposite Films for Food Packaging
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Åkerholm M, Hinterstoisser B, Salmén L (2004) Characterization of the crystalline structure of cellulose using static and dynamic FT-IR spectroscopy. Carbohydr Res 339:569–57810.1016/j.carres.2003.11.012 ↗
2. Araki J, Wada M, Kuga S (2001) Steric stabilization of a cellulose microcrystal suspension by poly(ethylene glycol) grafting. Langmuir 17:21–2710.1021/la001070m ↗
3. Atalla RH, Vanderhart DL (1999) The role of solid state 13C NMR spectroscopy in studies of the nature of native celluloses. Solid State Nucl Magn Reson 15:1–1910.1016/S0926-2040(99)00042-9 ↗
4. Auad ML, Contos VS, Nutt S, Aranguren MI, Marcovich NE (2008) Characterization of nanocellulose-reinforced shape memory polyurethanes. Polym Int 57:651–65910.1002/pi.2394 ↗
5. Auad ML, Mosiewicki MA, Richardson T, Aranguren MI, Marcovich NE (2010) Nanocomposites made from cellulose nanocrystals and tailored segmented polyurethanes. J Appl Polym Sci 115:1215–122510.1002/app.31218 ↗
6. Auad ML, Richardson T, Orts WJ, Medeiros ES, Mattoso LHC, Mosiewicki MA, Marcoviche NE, Arangurene MI (2011) Polyaniline-modified cellulose nanofibrils as reinforcement of a smart polyurethane. Polym Int 60:743–75010.1002/pi.3004 ↗
7. Azouz AB, Ramires E, van den Fonteyne W, El Kissi N, Dufresne A (2012) A simple method for the melt extrusion of a cellulose nanocrystal reinforced hydrophobic polymer. ACS Macro Lett 1:236–24010.1021/mz2001737 ↗
8. Azzam F, Heux L, Putaux J-L, Jean B (2010) Preparation by grafting onto, characterization, and properties of thermally responsive polymer-decorated cellulose nanocrystals. Biomacromolecules 11:3652–365910.1021/bm101106c ↗
9. Bahar E, Ucar N, Onen A, Wang Y, Oksüz M, Ayaz O, Ucar M, Demir A (2012) Thermal and mechanical properties of polypropylene nanocomposite materials reinforced with cellulose nano whiskers. J Appl Polym Sci 125:2882–288910.1002/app.36445 ↗
10. Battista OA (1950) Hydrolysis and crystallization of cellulose. Ind Eng Chem 42:502–50710.1021/ie50483a029 ↗
11. Battista OA, Coppick S, Howsmon JA, Morehead FF, Sisson WA (1956) Level-off degree of polymerization. Relation to polyphase structure of cellulose fibers. Ind Eng Chem 48:333–33510.1021/ie50554a046 ↗
12. Beck-Candanedo S, Roman M, Gray DG (2005) Effect of reaction conditions on the properties and behavior of wood cellulose nanocrystal suspensions. Biomacromolecules 6:1048–105410.1021/bm049300p ↗
13. Bondeson D, Mathew A, Oksman K (2006) Optimization of the isolation of nanocrystals from microcrystalline cellulose by acid hydrolysis. Cellulose 13:171–18010.1007/s10570-006-9061-4 ↗
14. Bonini C, Heux L, Cavaille J-Y, Lindner P, Dewhurst C, Terech P (2002) Rod-like cellulose whiskers coated with surfactant: a SANS characterization. Langmuir 18:3311–331410.1021/la015511t ↗
15. Bordel D, Putaux J-L, Heux L (2006) Orientation of native cellulose in an electric field. Langmuir 22:4899–490110.1021/la0600402 ↗
16. Borges AC, Eyholzer C, Duc F, Bourban P-E, Tingaut P, Zimmermann T, Pioletti DP, Manson J-AE (2011) Nanofibrillated cellulose composite hydrogel for the replacement of the nucleus pulpous. Acta Biomater 7:3412–342110.1016/j.actbio.2011.05.029 ↗
17. Cai J, Liu S, Feng J, Kimura S, Wada M, Kuga S, Zhang L (2012) Cellulose–silica nanocomposite aerogels by in situ formation of silica in cellulose gel. Angew Chem Int Ed 51:2076–207910.1002/anie.201105730 ↗
18. Callister JD Jr (ed) (1994) Materials science and engineering: an introduction. Wiley, New York, 1994, p 530
19. Cao X, Chen Y, Chang PR, Muir AD, Falk G (2008a) Starch-based nanocomposites reinforced with flax cellulose nanocrystals. Express Polym Lett 2:502–51010.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.60 ↗
20. Cao X, Chen Y, Chang PR, Stumborg M, Huneault MA (2008b) Green composites reinforced with hemp nanocrystals in plasticized starch. J Appl Polym Sci 109:3804–381010.1002/app.28418 ↗
21. Cao X, Habibi Y, Lucia LA (2009) One-pot polymerization, surface grafting, and processing of waterborne polyurethane-cellulose nanocrystal nanocomposites. J Mater Chem 19:7137–714510.1039/b910517d ↗
22. Cao X, Habibi Y, Magalhães WLE, Rojas OJ, Lucia LA (2011) Cellulose nanocrystals-based nanocomposites: fruits of a novel biomass research and teaching platform. Curr Sci 100:1172–1176
23. Cha R, He Z, Ni Y (2012) Preparation and characterization of thermal/pH-sensitive hydrogel from carboxylated nanocrystalline cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 88:713–71810.1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.026 ↗
24. Chazeau L, Cavaille JY, Perez J (2000) Plasticized PVC reinforced with cellulose whiskers. II. Plastic behavior. J Polym Sci, Part B: Polym Phys 38:383–39210.1002/(SICI)1099-0488(20000201)38:3<383::AID-POLB5>3.0.CO;2-Q ↗
25. Chen W, Yu H, Li Q, Liu Y, Li J (2011) Ultralight and highly flexible aerogels with long cellulose I nanofibers. Soft Matter 7:10360–1036810.1039/c1sm06179h ↗
26. Cranston ED, Gray DG (2006) Morphological and optical characterization of polyelectrolyte multilayers incorporating nanocrystalline cellulose. Biomacromolecules 7:2522–253010.1021/bm0602886 ↗
27. Cranston ED, Gray DG (2008) Birefringence in spin-coated films containing cellulose nanocrystals. Coll Surf A: Physicochem Eng Aspects 325:44–5110.1016/j.colsurfa.2008.04.042 ↗
28. Cranston ED, Gray DG, Rutland MW (2010) Direct surface force measurements of polyelectrolyte multilayer films containing nanocrystalline cellulose. Langmuir 26:17190–1719710.1021/la1030729 ↗
29. Dalmas F, Chazeau L, Gauthier C, Cavaille J-Y, Dendievel R (2006) Large deformation mechanical behavior of flexible nanofiber filled polymer nanocomposites. Polymer 47:2802–281210.1016/j.polymer.2006.02.014 ↗
30. Dalmas F, Cavaillé J-Y, Gauthier C, Chazeau L, Dendievel R (2007) Viscoelastic behavior and electrical properties of flexible nanofiber filled polymer nanocomposites. Influence of processing conditions. Compos Sci Technol 67:829–83910.1016/j.compscitech.2006.01.030 ↗
31. Das K, Ray D, Bandyopadhyay NR, Ghosh T, Mohanty AK, Misra M (2009) A study of the mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of microcrystalline cellulose particles prepared from cotton slivers using different acid concentrations. Cellulose 16:783–79310.1007/s10570-009-9280-6 ↗
32. de Menezes A, Jr Siqueira G, Curvelo AAS, Dufresne A (2009) Extrusion and characterisation of functionalized cellulose whiskers reinforced polyethylene nanocomposites. Polymer 50:4552–456310.1016/j.polymer.2009.07.038 ↗
33. de Rodriguez NLG, Thielemans W, Dufresne A (2006) Sisal cellulose whiskers reinforced polyvinyl acetate nanocomposites. Cellulose 13:261–27010.1007/s10570-005-9039-7 ↗
34. de Souza Lima MM, Borsali R (2004) Rodlike cellulose microcrystals: structure, properties, and applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 25:771–78710.1002/marc.200300268 ↗
35. de Souza Lima MM, Wong JT, Paillet M, Borsali R, Pecora R (2003) Translational and rotational dynamics of rod like cellulose whiskers. Langmuir 19:24–2910.1021/la020475z ↗
36. Diddens I, Murphy B, Krisch M, Muller M (2008) Anisotropic elastic properties of cellulose measured using inelastic X-ray scattering. Biomacromolecules 41:9755–975910.1021/ma801796u ↗
37. Ding WQ, Calabri L, Chen XQ, Kohhaas KM, Ruoff RS (2006) Mechanics of crystalline boron nanowires. Compos Sci Technol 66:1112–112410.1016/j.compscitech.2005.11.030 ↗
38. Dong XM, Kimura T, Revol J-F, Gray DG (1996) Effects of ionic strength on the isotropic-chiral nematic phase transition of suspensions of cellulose crystallites. Langmuir 12:2076–208210.1021/la950133b ↗
39. Dong XM, Revol J-F, Gray DG (1998) Effect of microcrystallite preparation conditions on the formation of colloid crystals of cellulose. Cellulose 5:19–3210.1023/A:1009260511939 ↗
40. Dorris A, Gray DG (2012) Gelation of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions in glycerol. Cellulose 19:687–69410.1007/s10570-012-9679-3 ↗
41. Ebeling T, Paillet M, Borsali R, Diat O, Dufresne A, Cavaille J-Y, Chanzy H (1999) Shear-induced orientation phenomena in suspensions of cellulose microcrystals, revealed by small angle X-ray scattering. Langmuir 15:6123–612610.1021/la990046+ ↗
42. Eichhorn SJ, Young RJ (2001) The Young’s modulus of a microcrystalline cellulose. Cellulose 8:197–20710.1023/A:1013181804540 ↗
43. Eichhorn SJ, Dufresne A, Aranguren M, Marcovich NE, Capadona JR, Rowan SJ, Weder C, Thielemans W, Roman M, Renneckar S, Gindl W, Veigel S, Keckes J, Yano H, Abe K, Nogi M, Nakagaito AN, Mangalam A, Simonsen J, Benight AS, Bismarck A, Berglund LA, Peijs T (2010) Review: current international research into cellulose nanofibres and nanocomposites. J Mater Sci 45:1–3310.1007/s10853-009-3874-0 ↗
44. Elazzouzi-Hafraoui S, Nishiyama Y, Putaux JL, Heux L, Dubreuil F, Rochas C (2008) The shape and size distribution of crystalline nanoparticles prepared by acid hydrolysis of native cellulose. Biomacromolecules 9:57–6510.1021/bm700769p ↗
45. Evans R, Newman RH, Roick UC (1995) Changes in cellulose crystallinity during kraft pulping. Comparison of infrared, x-ray diffraction and solid state NMR results. Holzforschung 49:498–50410.1515/hfsg.1995.49.6.498 ↗
46. Favier V, Canova GR, Cavaillé JY, Chanzy H, Dufresne A, Gauthier C (1994) Nanocomposite materials from latex and cellulose whiskers. Polym Adv Technol 6:351–35510.1002/pat.1995.220060514 ↗
47. Fortunati E, Armentano I, Zhou Q, Iannoni A, Saino E, Visai L, Berglund LA, Kenny JM (2012) Multifunctional bionanocomposite films of poly(lactic acid), cellulose nanocrystals and silver nanoparticles. Carb Polym 87:1596–160510.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.066 ↗
48. Gao Z, Peng J, Zhong T, Sun J, Wang X, Yue C (2012) Biocompatible elastomer of waterborne polyurethane based on castor oil and polyethylene glycol with cellulose nanocrystals. Carbohydr Polym 87:2068–207510.1016/j.carbpol.2011.10.027 ↗
49. Gardiner ES, Sarko A (1985) Packing analysis of carbohydrates and polysaccharides. 16. The crystal-structures of cellulose IV1 and cellulose IV11. Can J Chem 63:173–18010.1139/v85-027 ↗
50. Gardner KH, Blackwell J (1974) The structure of native cellulose. Biopolymers 13:1975–200110.1002/bip.1974.360131005 ↗
51. Garvey CJ, Parker IH, Simon GP (2005) On the interpretation of x-ray diffraction powder patterns in terms of the nanostructure of cellulose I fibres. Macromol Chem Phys 206:1568–157510.1002/macp.200500008 ↗
52. Gindl W, Keckes J (2005) All-cellulose nanocomposite. Polymer 46:10221–1022510.1016/j.polymer.2005.08.040 ↗
53. Gindl W, Schöberl T (2004) The significance of the elastic modulus of wood cell walls obtained from nanoindentation measurements. Comp Part A 35:1345–134910.1016/j.compositesa.2004.04.002 ↗
54. Goffin A-L, Raquez J-M, Duquesne E, Siqueira G, Habibi Y, Dufresne A, Dubois P (2011a) From interfacial ring-opening polymerization to melt processing of cellulose nanowhisker-filled polylactide-based nanocomposites. Biomacromolecules 12:2456–246510.1021/bm200581h ↗
55. Goffin A-L, Raquez J-M, Duquesne E, Siqueira G, Habibi Y, Dufresne A, Dubois P (2011b) Poly(ɛ-caprolactone) based nanocomposites reinforced by surface-grafted cellulose nanowhiskers via extrusion processing: Morphology, rheology, and thermo-mechanical properties. Polymer 52:1532–153810.1016/j.polymer.2011.02.004 ↗
56. Gong G, Mathew AP, Oksman K (2011) Toughening effect of cellulose nanowhiskers on polyvinyl acetate: fracture toughness and viscoelastic analysis. Polym Compos 32:1492–149810.1002/pc.21170 ↗
57. Gousse C, Chanzy H, Excoffier G, Soubeyrand L, Fleury E (2002) Stable suspensions of partially silylated cellulose whiskers dispersed in organic solvents. Polymer 43:2645–265110.1016/S0032-3861(02)00051-4 ↗
58. Grunert M, Winter WT (2002) Nanocomposites of cellulose acetate butyrate reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals. J Polym Environ 10:27–3010.1023/A:1021065905986 ↗
59. Habibi Y, Dufresne A (2008) Highly filled bionanocomposites from functionalized polysaccharide nanocrystals. Biomacromolecules 9:1974–198010.1021/bm8001717 ↗
60. Habibi Y, Chanzy H, Vignon M (2006) TEMPO-mediated surface oxidation of cellulose whiskers. Cellulose 13:679–68710.1007/s10570-006-9075-y ↗
61. Habibi Y, Goffin A, Schiltz N, Duquesne E, Dubois P, Dufresne A (2008) Bionanocomposites based on poly(e-caprolactone)-grafted cellulose nanocrystals by ring-opening polymerisation. J Mater Chem 18:5002–501010.1039/b809212e ↗
62. Hajji P, Cavaillé JY, Favier V, Gauthier C, Viger G (1996) Tensile behavior of nanocomposites from latex and cellulose whiskers. Polym Compos 17:612–61910.1002/pc.10651 ↗
63. Hao J, Nishiyama Y, Wada M, Kuga S (2004) Nanofibrillar cellulose aerogels. Colloids Surf A 240:63–6710.1016/j.colsurfa.2004.03.007 ↗
64. Hayashi J, Sufoka A, Ohkita J, Watanabe S (1975) Confirmation of existence of cellulose III(I), III(II), IV(I), and IV(II) by X-ray method. J Polym Sci Polym Lett 13:23–2710.1002/pol.1975.130130104 ↗
65. He J, Cui S, Wang S-Y (2008) Preparation and crystalline analysis of high-grade bamboo dissolving pulp for cellulose acetate. J Appl Polym Sci 107:1029–103810.1002/app.27061 ↗
66. Heath L, Thielemans W (2010) Cellulose nanowhisker aerogels. Green Chem 12:1448–145310.1039/c0gc00035c ↗
67. Herrera NV, Mathew AP, Wang LY, Oksman K (2011) Randomly oriented and aligned cellulose fibres reinforced with cellulose nanowhiskers, prepared by electrospinning. Plast, Rubber Compos 40:57–6410.1179/174328911X12988622800891 ↗
68. Heux L, Chauve G, Bonini C (2000) Nonflocculating and chiral-nematic self-ordering of cellulose microcrystals suspensions in nonpolar solvents. Langmuir 16:8210–821210.1021/la9913957 ↗
69. Hoepfner S, Ratke L, Milow B (2008) Synthesis and characterisation of nanofibrillar cellulose aerogels. Cellulose 15:121–12910.1007/s10570-007-9146-8 ↗
70. Horii F, Hirai A, Kitamaru R (1987) CP/MAS 13C NMR spectra of the crystalline components of native celluloses. Macromolecules 20:2117–212010.1021/ma00175a012 ↗
71. Hossain KMZ, Ahmed I, Parsons AJ, Scotchford CA, Walker GS, Thielemans W, Rudd CD (2012) Physico-chemical and mechanical properties of nanocomposites prepared using cellulose nanowhiskers and poly(lactic acid). J Mater Sci 47:2675–268610.1007/s10853-011-6093-4 ↗
72. Hult LE, Iversen T, Sugiyama J (2003) Characterization of the supramolecular structure of cellulose in wood pulp fibres. Cellulose 10:103–11010.1023/A:1024080700873 ↗
73. Hüsing N, Schubert U (1998) Aerogels—airy materials: chemistry, structure and properties. Angew Chem Int Ed 37:22–4510.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19980202)37:1/2<22::AID-ANIE22>3.0.CO;2-I ↗
74. Hussain F, Hojjati M, Okamoto M, Gorga RE (2006) Review article: polymer-matrix nanocomposites, processing, manufacturing, and application: an overview. J Compos Mater 40:1511–157510.1177/0021998306067321 ↗
75. Innventia (2011) Nanocellulose. http://www.innventia.com/en/Our-Expertise/New-materials/Nanocellulose . Accessed 28 November 2012
76. Ioelovich M, Leykin A, Fogovsky O (2010) Study of cellulose paracrystallinity. Bioresources 5:1393–140710.15376/biores.5.3.1393-1407 ↗
77. Jaswon A, Gillis PP, Mark RE (1968) The elastic constants of crystalline native cellulose. Proc R Soc Lond A 306:389–41210.1098/rspa.1968.0157 ↗
78. Jean B, Dubreuil F, Heux L, Cousin F (2008) Structural details of cellulose nanocrystals/polyelectrolytes multilayers probed by neutron reflectivity and AFM. Langmuir 24:3452–345810.1021/la703045f ↗
79. Job S (2011) Plastics from fruit derived nanocellulose in car parts. https://connect.innovateuk.org/web/biocomposites/articles/-/blogs/plastics-from-fruit-derived-nanocellulose-in-car-parts . Accessed 28 November 2012
80. John MJ, Anandjiwala R, Oksman K, Mathew AP (2012) Melt-spun polylactic acid fibers: effect of cellulose nanowhiskers on processing and properties. J Appl Polym Sci 127:274–28110.1002/app.37884 ↗
81. Kataoka Y, Kondo T (1998) FT-IR microscopic analysis of changing cellulose crystalline structure during wood cell wall formation. Macromolecules 31:760–76410.1021/ma970768c ↗
82. Kaushik A, Singh M, Verma G (2010) Green nanocomposites based on thermoplastic starch and steam exploded cellulose nanofibrils from wheat straw. Carbohydr Polym 82:337–34510.1016/j.carbpol.2010.04.063 ↗
83. Kettunen M, Silvennoinen R, Houbenov N, Nykaenen A, Ruokolainen J, Sainio J, Pore V, Kemell M, Ankerfors M, Lindstroem T (2011) Photoswitchable superabsorbency based on nanocellulose aerogels. Adv Funct Mater 21:510–51710.1002/adfm.201001431 ↗
84. Kim H, Abdala AA, Macosko CW (2010) Graphene/polymer nanocomposites. Macromolecules 43:6515–653010.1021/ma100572e ↗
85. Kimura F, Kimura T, Tamura M, Hirai A, Ikuno M, Horii F (2005) Magnetic alignment of the chiral nematic phase of a cellulose microfibril suspension. Langmuir 21:2034–203710.1021/la0475728 ↗
86. Klemm D, Kramer F, Moritz S, Lindström T, Ankerfors M, Gray D, Dorris A (2011) Nanocelluloses: a new family of nature-based materials. Angew Chem Int Ed 50:5438–546610.1002/anie.201001273 ↗
87. Koo JH (2006) Polymer nanocomposites: processing, characterization, and applications. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York
88. Korhonen JT, Kettunen M, Ras RHA, Ikkala O (2011) Hydrophobic nanocellulose aerogels as floating, sustainable, reusable, and recyclable oil absorbents. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:1813–181610.1021/am200475b ↗
89. Krässig HA (1993) Cellulose: structure, accessibility, and reactivity. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Yverdon
90. Krishnamachari P, Hashaikeh R, Tiner M (2011) Modified cellulose morphologies and its composites; SEM and TEM analysis. Micron 42:751–76110.1016/j.micron.2011.05.001 ↗
91. Kvien I, Oksman K (2007) Orientation of cellulose nanowhiskers in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Appl Phys A Mater Sci Process 87:641–64310.1007/s00339-007-3882-3 ↗
92. Lahiji RR, Xu X, Reifenberger R, Raman A, Rudie A, Moon RJ (2010) Atomic force microscopy characterization of cellulose nanocrystals. Langmuir 26:4480–448810.1021/la903111j ↗
93. Lam E, Male KB, Chong JH, Leung ACW, Luong JHT (2012) Applications of functionalized and nanoparticle-modified nanocrystalline cellulose. Trends Biotechnol 30:283–29010.1016/j.tibtech.2012.02.001 ↗
94. Lam E, Leung ACW, Liu Y, Majid E, Hrapovic S, Male KB, Luong JHT (2013) A green strategy guided by Raman spectroscopy for the synthesis of ammonium carboxylated nanocrystalline cellulose and the recovery of by-products. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 1:278–28310.1021/sc3001367 ↗
95. Larsson PT, Wickholm K, Iversen T (1997) A CP/MAS C-13 NMR investigation of molecular ordering in celluloses. Carbohydr Res 302:19–2510.1016/S0008-6215(97)00130-4 ↗
96. Lee J, Deng Y (2012) Increased mechanical properties of aligned and isotropic electrospun PVA nanofiber webs by cellulose nanowhisker reinforcement. Macromol Res 20:76–8310.1007/s13233-012-0008-3 ↗
97. Lemke CH (2011) Structural analysis of nanocrystalline cellulose using solid-state NMR. Dissertation, University of British Columbia
98. Leung CW, Luong JHT, Hrapovic S, Lam E, Liu Y, Male K, Mahmoud K, Rho D (2010) Canada Patent 000372
99. Leung ACW, Hrapovic S, Lam E, Liu Y, Male KB, Mahmoud KA, Luong JHT (2011) Characteristics and properties of carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals prepared from a novel one-step procedure. Small 7:302–30510.1002/smll.201001715 ↗
100. Li Y, Ragauskas AJ (2012) Ethanol organosolv lignin-based rigid polyurethane foam reinforced with cellulose nanowhiskers. RSC Adv 2:3347–335110.1039/c2ra00646d ↗