Persistence of commercial nanoscaled zero-valent iron (nZVI) and by-products

The use of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) for in situ remediation of a wide scale of environmental pollutants is increasing. Bench and field pilot studies have recorded successful cleanup of many pollutants using nZVI and other iron-mediated nanoparticles. However, a major question remains unanswered: what is the long-term environmental fate of the iron nanoparticles used for remediation? We aged three types of commercial nZVI in different aqueous media, including a groundwater sample, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions for 28 days, and found that the bulk of the nZVI injected into polluted sites will end up in the sediment phase of the aquifer. This is mainly due to aggregation-induced sedimentation of the nZVI and the insoluble iron oxides formed when nZVI undergoes corrosion. Iron concentrations >500 g/kg were detected in sediment, a loading level of iron that may potentially affect some organisms and also reduce the permeability of aquifers. Dissolved and suspended iron concentrations initially surged when nZVI was applied, but iron decreased steadily in the supernatant and suspended sediment as the bulk of the iron partitioned into the sediment. Solution and surface chemistry of the iron species showed that nZVI remains reactive for more than 1 month, and that the reactivity of iron and its transformations are governed by environmental factors, including the presence of different ions, ionic strength, natural organic matter, and pH.