Titanium dioxide in advanced textiles: A review of functional performance, durability, and environmental viability

Titanium dioxide (TiO ₂ ) has emerged as one of the most extensively studied nanomaterials for textile functionalization due to its exceptional physicochemical stability, photocatalytic activity, high refractive index, and cost-effectiveness. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of the role of TiO ₂ in enhancing textile performance and functionality. Fundamental aspects related to TiO ₂ structure, crystalline phases, and photocatalytic mechanisms are discussed to establish the basis of its multifunctional behavior. Various strategies for incorporating TiO ₂ into natural and synthetic textiles are systematically examined, including nanoparticle synthesis routes, surface modification approaches, and application techniques aimed at improving durability and wash resistance. The functional outcomes enabled by TiO ₂ , such as self-cleaning, ultraviolet protection, antimicrobial activity, electrical conductivity, hydrophobicity, flame retardancy, and thermal regulation, are comparatively evaluated across different textile systems. Furthermore, qualitative performance assessment highlights the strengths, limitations, and durability of TiO ₂ -based textile treatments. Environmental sustainability and economic feasibility are addressed through life cycle and techno-economic considerations, emphasizing energy demand, synthesis pathways, scalability, and cost sensitivity. Overall, the findings indicate that TiO ₂ offers strong potential for the development of durable, multifunctional, and scalable textile technologies, particularly when energy-efficient synthesis routes and robust immobilization strategies are employed.