Impregnating Lattice Sulfur into Iron Crystal Allows Anaerobic Degradation of Extracellular Antibiotic Resistance Genes

Abstract Lattice sulfur‐impregnated nanoscale zerovalent iron (S‐nFe⁰) has been recognized as a promising groundwater remediation agent. However, little information is available on its reactivity with ubiquitous extracellular antibiotic resistance genes (eARGs) in anaerobic groundwater, and how S content and speciation affect their interactions. Here, the efficient anaerobic degradation of eARGs by S‐nFe⁰ (6 log within 5 min), resulting in completely inhibited transformation is showed. The removal rate of eARGs by S‐nFe⁰ (0.26 mg m⁻² min⁻¹) is correlated well with the S‐induced hydrophobicity and electron transfer ability of materials, and this reactivity improvement (up to 22‐fold) compared to nFe⁰ largely depended on the S content and speciation. Multiple measurements are applied to verify the degradation of eARGs and their interactions with materials, where Fe−O−P coordination, hydrophobic interaction, and electron transfer play critical roles. The application potential of S‐nFe⁰ is strongly supported by their long‐term reactivity and stability in real groundwater and universal reactivity with multiple eARGs. These findings elucidate the mechanistic role of lattice S in the degradation of eARGs by S‐nFe⁰, unveil binding sites and interactions between eARGs and S‐nFe⁰, and will advance understanding toward better design of S‐nFe° for eARGs‐contaminated groundwater remediation.