journal article·2026-01-23Open access

Recent advances in resistive strain sensors: from materials and fabrication to applications in plant wearables

Shixuan Xu, Zhenyu Wang, Zhemin Jia, David Hui

Abstract

Abstract The continuous growth of the global population, coupled with increasingly severe environmental stresses such as droughts, floods, and frosts, has made enhancing crop yields a critical research priority. Smart agriculture, which integrates wearable plant sensors with the Internet of Things (IoT), presents a promising solution. This approach enables real-time monitoring of plant growth dynamics and pattern analysis, supports targeted human intervention to minimize resource waste, and promotes sustainable resource management. Within this framework, resistive strain sensors serve as a foundational technology. This minireview therefore summarizes their recent advances, with a focus on sensing materials, fabrication techniques, and emerging applications in wearable plant sensors.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials · Smart Agriculture and AI · Gas Sensing Nanomaterials and Sensors

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Food Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University , Wuxi , China

Institute of Environmental Processes and Pollution Control, and School of Environment and Ecology, Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China

Department of Mechanical Engineering , University of New Orleans , New Orleans , LA 70148 , USA

References (82)

Show source-provided references
1. Wang, ZW, Wei, H, Huang, YJ, Wei, Y, Chen, J. Naturally sourced hydrogels: emerging fundamental materials for next-generation healthcare sensing. Chem Soc Rev 2023;52:2992–3034. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2cs00813k.10.1039/D2CS00813K ↗
2. Zhao, SQ, Liu, DP, Yan, F. Wearable resistive‐type stretchable strain sensors: materials and applications. Adv Mater 2025;37. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202413929.10.1002/adma.202413929 ↗
3. Wei, YC, Zhang, WB, Pan, T, Xiao, H. Spindle-knot reinforced liquid metal-based strain sensor with excellent stretchability and stability. Chem Eng J 2025;503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.158365.10.1016/j.cej.2024.158365 ↗
4. Li, H, Du, ZQ. Preparation of a highly sensitive and stretchable strain sensor of MXene/silver nanocomposite-based yarn and wearable applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2019;11:45930–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b19242.10.1021/acsami.9b19242 ↗
5. Cui, XH, Jiang, Y, Xu, ZG, Xi, M, Jiang, Y, Song, PG, et al.. Stretchable strain sensors with dentate groove structure for enhanced sensing recoverability. Composites Part B 2021;211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.108641.10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.108641 ↗
6. Jiang, N, Chang, XH, Hu, DW, Chen, LR, Wang, YP, Chen, JW, et al.. Flexible, transparent, and antibacterial ionogels toward highly sensitive strain and temperature sensors. Chem Eng J 2021;424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130418.10.1016/j.cej.2021.130418 ↗
7. Yao, B, Lü, XZ, Wang, YW, Bai, NN, Chen, CY, Wang, SW, et al.. Ultrasensitive, highly stable, and stretchable strain sensor using gated liquid metal channel. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34:2314298.10.1002/adfm.202314298 ↗
8. Wang, WY, Yao, DJ, Wang, H, Ding, QL, Luo, YB, Ding, HJ, et al.. A breathable, stretchable, and self‐calibrated multimodal electronic skin based on hydrogel microstructures for wireless wearables. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202316339.10.1002/adfm.202316339 ↗
9. Yue, XY, Fang, CQ, Yao, QZ, Liu, CT, Shen, CY, Liu, H, et al.. Tunable porous fiber-shaped strain sensor with synergistic conductive network for human motion recognition and tactile sensing. Chem Eng J 2024;491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.151853.10.1016/j.cej.2024.151853 ↗
10. Hu, FH, Dong, BT, Yu, DH, Zhao, R, Chen, W, Song, ZP, et al.. Highly stretchable, self-healing, antibacterial, conductive, and amylopectin-enhanced hydrogels with gallium droplets loading as strain sensors. Carbohydr Polym 2024;242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122357.10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122357 ↗
11. Zhang, SP, Chhetry, A, Zahed, MA, Shama, S, Prak, C, Yoon, S, et al.. On-skin ultrathin and stretchable multifunctional sensor for smart healthcare wearables. npj Flex Electron 2022;6:11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-022-00140-4.10.1038/s41528-022-00140-4 ↗
12. Shen, ZQ, Zhang, ZL, Zhang, NB, Li, JH, Zhou, PW, Hu, FQ, et al.. High‐stretchability, ultralow‐hysteresis conductingpolymer hydrogel strain sensors for soft machines. Adv Mater 2022;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202203650.10.1002/adma.202203650 ↗
13. Park, J, Guan, WX, Yu, GH. Smart hydrogels for sustainable agriculture. EcoMat 2025;7. https://doi.org/10.1002/eom2.70011.10.1002/eom2.70011 ↗
14. Aldhaheri, L, Alshehhi, N, Manzil, IIJ, Khalil, RA, Javaid, S, Saeed, N, et al.. LoRa communication for agriculture 4.0: opportunities, challenges, and future directions. IEEE Internet Things J 2025;12:1380–407. https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2024.3486369.10.1109/JIOT.2024.3486369 ↗
15. Zhang, HY, Hong, JL, Zhu, JX, Duan, SS, Xia, ML, Chen, JY, et al.. Humanoid electronic-skin technology for the era of artificial intelligence of things. Matter 2025;8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2025.102136.10.1016/j.matt.2025.102136 ↗
16. Cui, XH, Xi, YB, Tu, SW, Zhu, YT. An overview of flexible sensors from ionic liquid-based gels. Trends Anal Chem 2024;174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2024.117662.10.1016/j.trac.2024.117662 ↗
17. Song, XP, Gu, Y, Wang, S, Fan, JY, An, JY, Yan, L, et al.. Scalable integration of high sensitivity strain sensors based on silicon nanowire spring array directly grown on flexible polyimide films. Nano Lett 2025;25:2290–7. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05553.10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05553 ↗
18. Zong, XJ, Zhang, CP, Zhang, NQ, Wang, ZR, Wang, JL. Breathable, superhydrophobic and multifunctional Janus nanofibers for dual-mode passive thermal management/facial expression recognition with deep learning. Chem Eng J 2025;505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.159759.10.1016/j.cej.2025.159759 ↗
19. Liu, L, Wang, YB, Liu, XQ, Yuan, WF, Yuan, MM, Xia, QK, et al.. High-performance wearable strain sensor based on MXene@cotton fabric with network structure. Nanomaterials 2021;11:889. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11040889.10.3390/nano11040889 ↗
20. Zhu, JX, Wen, HY, Zhang, H, Huang, P, Liu, L, Hu, HB, et al.. Recent advances in biodegradable electronics- from fundament to the next-generation multi-functional, medical and environmental device. Sustain Mater Technol 2023;35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00530.10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00530 ↗
21. Paschoalin, RT, Gomes, NO, Almeida, GF, Bilatto, S, Farinas, CS, Machado, SAS, et al.. Wearable sensors made with solution-blow spinning poly (lactic acid) for non-enzymatic pesticide detection in agriculture and food safety. Biosens Bioelectron 2022;199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113875.10.1016/j.bios.2021.113875 ↗
22. Teixeira, SC, Gomes, NO, Calegaro, ML, Machado, SAS, Oliveira, TV, Soares, NFF, et al.. Sustainable plant-wearable sensors for on-site, rapid decentralized detection of pesticides toward precision agriculture and food safety. Biomater Adv 2023;155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213676.10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213676 ↗
23. Yan, DB, Song, LL, Kang, FY, Mo, XY, Lv, YQ, Sun, JL, et al.. In situ growth of covalent organic frameworks on carbon nanotubes for high‐performance potassium‐ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed 2025;64. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.202422851.10.1002/anie.202422851 ↗
24. Zhao, LJ, Wang, LL, Zheng, YQ, Zhao, SF, Wei, W, Zhang, DW, et al.. Highly-stable polymer-crosslinked 2D MXene-based flexible biocompatible electronic skins for in vivo biomonitoring. Nano Energy 2021;84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105921.10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105921 ↗
25. Bao, ZL, Zhong, H, Li, XR, Zhang, AR, Liu, YX, Chen, P, et al.. Core-shell Au@Ag nanoparticles on carboxylated graphene for simultaneous electrochemical sensing of iodide and nitrite. Sensor Actuator B Chem 2021;345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2021.130319.10.1016/j.snb.2021.130319 ↗
26. Li, YM, Chen, S, Yan, H, Jiang, HW, Luo, JJ, Zhang, C, et al.. Biodegradable, transparent, and antibacterial alginate-based triboelectric nanogenerator for energy harvesting and tactile sensing. Chem Eng J 2023;468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.143572.10.1016/j.cej.2023.143572 ↗
27. Zhu, LD, Xu, PH, Chang, BQ, Ning, JS, Yan, TM, Yang, ZC, et al.. Hierarchical structure by self‐sedimentation of liquid metal for flexible sensor integrating pressure detection and triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202400363.10.1002/adfm.202400363 ↗
28. Ma, SS, Xue, P, Valenzuela, C, Zhang, X, Chen, Y, Liu, Y, et al.. Highly stretchable and conductive MXene‐encapsulated liquid metal hydrogels for bioinspired self‐sensing soft actuators. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202309899.10.1002/adfm.202309899 ↗
29. Wang, S, Liu, BH, Duan, ZH, Zhao, QN, Zhang, YJ, Xie, GZ, et al.. PANI nanofibers-supported Nb2CTX nanosheets-enabled selective NH3 detection driven by TENG at room temperature. Sensor Actuator B Chem 2021;327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2020.128923.10.1016/j.snb.2020.128923 ↗
30. Lee, JH, Cho, K, Kim, JK. Age of flexible electronics: emerging trends in soft multifunctional sensors. Adv Mater 2024;36. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202310505.10.1002/adma.202310505 ↗
31. Zhao, XX, Guo, H, Ding, P, Zhai, W, Liu, CT, Shen, CY, et al.. Hollow-porous fiber-shaped strain sensor with multiple wrinkle-crack microstructure for strain visualization and wind monitoring. Nano Energy 2023;108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108197.10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108197 ↗
32. Wang, Y, Lei, D, Wu, LK, Hu, N, Ning, HM, Alamusi, et al.. AlamusiPreparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting. Rev Adv Mater Sci 2023;62, https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2023-0146.10.1515/rams-2023-0146 ↗
33. Chen, H, Zhuo, FL, Zhuo, J, Liu, Y, Zhang, JB, Dong, SR, et al.. Advances in graphene-based flexible and wearable strain sensors. Chem Eng J 2023;464:142576.10.1016/j.cej.2023.142576 ↗
34. Cheng, L, Yeung, CS, Huang, LB, Ye, G, Yan, J, Li, WP, et al.. Flash healing of laser-induced graphene. Nat Commun 2024;15:2925. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47341-1.10.1038/s41467-024-47341-1 ↗
35. Zhu, JX, Cho, M, Li, YT, He, TYY, Ahn, J, Park, J, et al.. Machine learning-enabled textile-based graphene gas sensing with energy harvesting-assisted IoT application. Nano Energy 2025;86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106035.10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106035 ↗
36. Das, P, Marvi, PK, Ganguly, S, Tang, XW, Wang, B, Srinivasan, S, et al.. MXene-based elastomer mimetic stretchable sensors: design, properties, and applications. Nano-Micro Lett 2024;16:135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01349-w.10.1007/s40820-024-01349-w ↗
37. Sharma, A, Ansari, MZ, Cho, C. Ultrasensitive flexible wearable pressure/strain sensors: parameters, materials, mechanisms and applications. Sens Actuators A: Phys 2022;347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2022.113934.10.1016/j.sna.2022.113934 ↗
38. Gong, S, Lu, Y, Yin, JL, Levin, A, Cheng, WL. Materials-driven soft wearable bioelectronics for connected healthcare. Chem Rev 2024;124:455–553. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00502.10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00502 ↗
39. Liu, D, Huyan, CX, Wang, ZB, Guo, ZH, Zhang, XH, Torun, H, et al.. Conductive polymer based hydrogels and their application in wearable sensors: a review. Mater Horiz 2023;10:2800–23. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3mh00056g.10.1039/D3MH00056G ↗
40. Guo, WY, Ma, MG. Conductive nanocomposite hydrogels for flexible wearable sensors. J Mater Chem A 2024;12:9371–99. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ta08069b.10.1039/D3TA08069B ↗
41. Zhang, YB, Li, TY, Miao, LY, Kaur, P, Men, SJ, Wang, Q, et al.. A highly sensitive and ultra-stretchable zwitterionic liquid hydrogel-based sensor as anti-freezing ionic skin. J Mater Chem A 2022;10:3970–88. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ta09769e.10.1039/D1TA09769E ↗
42. Zhai, KK, Wang, H, Ding, QL, Wu, ZX, Ding, MH, Tao, K, et al.. High‐performance strain sensors based on organohydrogel microsphere film for wearable human–computer interfacing. Adv Sci 2023;10. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202205632.10.1002/advs.202205632 ↗
43. Taesuwan, I, Ounkaew, A, Okhawilai, M, Hiziroglu, S, Jarernboon, W, Chindaprasirt, P, et al.. Smart conductive nanocomposite hydrogel containing green synthesized nanosilver for use in an eco-friendly strain sensor. Cellulose 2022;29:273–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-04302-x.10.1007/s10570-021-04302-x ↗
44. Zhao, XY, Lin, XS, Yao, Z, Li, YY, Li, Y, Gong, NJ. Plant growth monitoring, prediction, and self-regulation utilizing MXene/CNTs/TPU flexible strain sensors integrated with deep learning algorithms and soft actuators. Sci China Mater 2025;68:3715–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-3502-2.10.1007/s40843-025-3502-2 ↗
45. Dong, TY, Wang, JQ, Lai, XD, Zhang, CJ, Li, HW. Flexible strain sensors based on liquid metal with optimized atomizing spraying for wearable applications. IEEE Sens J 2025;25:7323–30. https://doi.org/10.1109/jsen.2025.3526157.10.1109/JSEN.2025.3526157 ↗
46. Zhuo, XQ, Tian, Y, Zhu, JT, Xiao, MF, Xie, SY, Huang, YY, et al.. Graded biomimetic-based wearable plant sensors with broad-range and high-sensitivity for real-time growth monitoring. Microchem J 2025;218:115251.10.1016/j.microc.2025.115251 ↗
47. Peng, L, An, YT, Xiang, HJ, Pan, X, Wang, YD, Yang, QX, et al.. Liquid metal complexing Fe3O4 nanoparticles enable rapid polymerization of magnetically conductive hydrogels for various flexible electronics. Nano Energy 2024;130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110058.10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110058 ↗
48. Teramoto, M, Shi, L, Seimiya, N, Takei, K. Minimally invasive multimodal flexible sensors to monitor stem growth rate, soil water content, and soil pH. ACS Sens 2025;10:61956205–5. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.5c01912.10.1021/acssensors.5c01912 ↗
49. Borode, T, Wang, DL, Prasad, PA. Polyaniline-based sensor for real-time plant growth monitoring. Sens Actuators A: Phys 2023;355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2023.114319.10.1016/j.sna.2023.114319 ↗
50. Wang, YL, Li, P, Liu, ZZ, Kang, JK, Liu, K, Su, Y, et al.. Highly stretchable and reliable graphene-based strain sensor for plant health monitoring and deep learning-assisted crop recognition. Research 2025;8:0933. https://doi.org/10.34133/research.0933.10.34133/research.0933 ↗
51. Hossain, NI, Tabassum, S. A hybrid multifunctional physicochemical sensor suite for continuous monitoring of crop health. Sci Rep 2023;13:9848. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37041-z.10.1038/s41598-023-37041-z ↗
52. Sun, T, Lu, CZ, Shi, Z, Zou, M, Bi, P, Xu, XD, et al.. Plantring: a high-throughput wearable sensor system for decoding plant growth, water relations, and innovating irrigation. Plant Commun 2025;6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xplc.2025.101322.10.1016/j.xplc.2025.101322 ↗
53. Wang, G, Huang, W, Eastham, ND, Fabiano, S, Manley, EF, Zeng, L, et al.. Aggregation control in natural brush-printed conjugated polymer films and implications for enhancing charge transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2017;114:10066–73. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713634114.10.1073/pnas.1713634114 ↗
54. Lee, JH, Raman, V, Kang, C, Ha, HU, Seok, HJ, Kim, HK, et al.. Highly stretchable transparent bar coated AgNW/PEDOT:PSS hybrid electrode for wearable and stretchable devices. RSC Adv 2022;12:3055–61. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ra08173j.10.1039/D1RA08173J ↗
55. Zheng, YJ, Yin, R, Zhao, Y, Liu, H, Zhang, DB, Shi, XZ, et al.. Conductive MXene/cotton fabric based pressure sensor with both high sensitivity and wide sensing range for human motion detection and E-skin. Chem Eng J 2021;420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.127720.10.1016/j.cej.2020.127720 ↗
56. Xu, X, Xue, P, Gao, M, Li, YB, Xu, ZJ, Wei, Y, et al.. Assembled one-dimensional nanowires for flexible electronic devices via printing and coating: techniques, applications, and perspectives. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023;321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2023.102987.10.1016/j.cis.2023.102987 ↗
57. Yang, YP, Wang, HJ, Hou, YY, Nan, SQ, Di, YY, Dai, Y, et al.. MWCNTs/PDMS composite enabled printed flexible omnidirectional strain sensors for wearable electronics. Compos Sci Technol 2022;226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2022.109518.10.1016/j.compscitech.2022.109518 ↗
58. Hyun, WJ, Secor, EB, Hersam, MC, Frisbie, CD, Francis, LF. High-resolution patterning of graphene by screen printing with a silicon stencil for highly flexible printed electronics. Adv Mater 2015;27:109–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201404133.10.1002/adma.201404133 ↗
59. Taromsari, SM, Shi, HTH, Saadatnia, Z, Park, CB, Naguib, HE. Design and development of ultra-sensitive, dynamically stable, multi-modal GnP@MXene nanohybrid electrospun strain sensors. Chem Eng J 2022;442:136138.10.1016/j.cej.2022.136138 ↗
60. Wang, ZY, Qu, DP, Zhang, T, Hua, CX, Song, XY, Li, M, et al.. Epoxy microlattice with simultaneous self-sensing and electromagnetic interference shielding performance by in-situ additive manufacturing. Compos Appl Sci Manuf 2024;187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2024.108521.10.1016/j.compositesa.2024.108521 ↗
61. Gao, J, Yu, ZH, Xue, H, Zhang, TY, Gu, JM, Huang, FL, et al.. Highly conductive and sensitive alginate hydrogel strain sensors fabricated using near-field electrohydrodynamic direct-writing process. Int J Biol Macromol 2024;282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136802.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136802 ↗
62. Lin, JX, Hu, HW, Luo, J, Miao, L, Yang, ZH, Chen, M, et al.. Micro/nanoarrays and their applications in flexible sensors: a review. Mater Today Nano 2022;19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2022.100224.10.1016/j.mtnano.2022.100224 ↗
63. Guo, YL, Feng, SW, Gao, WZ, Cui, JJ, Lu, Z, Liang, C, et al.. Attapulgite‐reinforced robust and ionic conductive composite hydrogels for digital light processing 3D printing. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202408775.10.1002/adfm.202408775 ↗
64. Liu, HD, Du, CF, Liao, LL, Zhang, HJ, Zhou, HQ, Zhou, WC, et al.. Approaching intrinsic dynamics of MXenes hybrid hydrogel for 3D printed multimodal intelligent devices with ultrahigh superelasticity and temperature sensitivity. Nat Commun 2022;13:3420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-31051-7.10.1038/s41467-022-31051-7 ↗
65. Wang, ZY, Shao, PP, Hua, CX, Xu, SX, Qu, DP, Liu, YJ, et al.. Strain‐tolerant nanocomposite conductors with engineered bicontinuous phase system by additive liquid/solid assembly. Adv Funct Mater 2024;34. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202404373.10.1002/adfm.202404373 ↗
66. Zhao, S, Jia, ZM, Hui, D, Wang, ZY. Highly aligned porous nanocomposites with exceptional multidirectional sensing properties via heat‐assisted electrohydrodynamic printing. Polym Compos 2025;46. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.29782.10.1002/pc.29782 ↗
67. Wu, S, Kim, D, Tang, XQ, King, MW, Zhu, Y. Encapsulated stretchable amphibious strain sensors. Mater Horiz 2024;11:5070–80. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4mh00757c.10.1039/D4MH00757C ↗
68. Wan, XD, He, YF, Li, CC, Yang, CH. Encapsulating eutectogels for stretchable humidity-resistant strain sensors. Soft Matter 2023;19:2570–8. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3sm00026e.10.1039/D3SM00026E ↗
69. Lee, G, Hossain, O, Jamalzadegan, S, Liu, YX, Wang, HY, Saville, AC, et al.. Abaxial leaf surface-mounted multimodal wearable sensor for continuous plant physiology monitoring. Sci Adv 2023;9. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ade2232.10.1126/sciadv.ade2232 ↗
70. Zhang, C, Zhang, C, Wu, XY, Ping, JF, Ying, YB. An integrated and robust plant pulse monitoring system based on biomimetic wearable sensor. npj Flex Electron 2022;6:43. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-022-00177-5.10.1038/s41528-022-00177-5 ↗
71. Hsu, HH, Zhang, XY, Xu, KG, Wang, Y, Wang, Q, Luo, GX, et al.. Self-powered and plant-wearable hydrogel as LED power supply and sensor for promoting and monitoring plant growth in smart farming. Chem Eng J 2021;422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129499.10.1016/j.cej.2021.129499 ↗
72. Jiang, JJ, Zhang, S, Wang, B, Ding, H, Wu, ZG. Hydroprinted liquid‐alloy‐based morphing electronics for fast‐growing/tender plants: from physiology monitoring to habit manipulation. Small 2020;16. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202003833.10.1002/smll.202003833 ↗
73. Wang, LN, Wang, W, Wan, RT, Yao, MT, Chen, WN, Zhang, LY, et al.. All 3D-printed high-sensitivity adaptive hydrogel strain sensor for accurate plant growth monitoring. Soft Sci 2025;5:1020517. https://doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.38.10.20517/ss.2024.38 ↗
74. Tang, WZ, Yan, TT, Ping, JF, Wu, J, Ying, YB. Rapid fabrication of flexible and stretchable strain sensor by chitosan‐based water ink for plants growth monitoring. Adv Mater Technol 2017;2. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201700021.10.1002/admt.201700021 ↗
75. Nassar, JM, Khan, SM, Villalva, DR, Nour, MM, Almuslem, AS, Hussain, MM, et al.. Compliant plant wearables for localized microclimate and plant growth monitoring. npj Flex Electron 2018;2:24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-018-0039-8.10.1038/s41528-018-0039-8 ↗
76. Wang, LN, Chen, WN, Li, H, Xu, XY, Zhang, ZL, Wu, LD, et al.. Ultrasoft, anti-dehydrated, and highly stretchable carboxymethylcellulose-based organohydrogel strain sensors for non-invasive real-time plant growth monitoring. Carbohydr Polym 2025;364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.123753.10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.123753 ↗
77. Wang, LN, Zhang, ZL, Gao, J, Zheng, WQ, Zhao, Q, Chen, W, et al.. Low hysteresis and fatigue-resistant polyvinyl alcohol/activated charcoal hydrogel strain sensor for long-term stable plant growth monitoring. Polymers 2022;15:90. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010090.10.3390/polym15010090 ↗
78. Su, JY, Gao, Y, Yang, Y, Fan, PH, Zhou, ZL, Wang, ZX, et al.. Natural polysaccharide film-based triboelectric sensor for fruit transportation collision monitoring. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2024;16:12417–27. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c17241.10.1021/acsami.3c17241 ↗
79. Lu, YY, Xu, KC, Zhang, LS, Deguchi, M, Shishido, H, Arie, T, et al.. Multimodal plant healthcare flexible sensor system. ACS Nano 2020;14:10966–75. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c03757.10.1021/acsnano.0c03757 ↗
80. Zhang, W, Awais, M, Naqvi, SM, Xiong, YN, Li, LZ, Zang, YH, et al.. Real-time remote corn growth monitoring system using plant wearable fiber bragg grating sensor. Comput Electron Agric 2024;227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2024.109538.10.1016/j.compag.2024.109538 ↗
81. Chai, YF, Chen, CY, Luo, X, Zhan, SJ, Kim, J, Luo, JK, et al.. Cohabiting plant‐wearable sensor in situ monitors water transport in plant. Adv Sci 2021;8. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202003642.10.1002/advs.202003642 ↗
82. Yan, BP, Zhang, F, Wang, M, Zhang, YK, Fu, SL. Flexible wearable sensors for crop monitoring: a review. Front Plant Sci 2024;15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1406074.10.3389/fpls.2024.1406074 ↗