Lithium-ion battery recycling—a review of the material supply and policy infrastructure
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract The current change in battery technology followed by the almost immediate adoption of lithium as a key resource powering our energy needs in various applications is undeniable. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are at the forefront of the industry and offer excellent performance. The application of LIBs is expected to continue to increase. The adoption of renewable energies has spurred this LIB proliferation and resulted in a dramatic increase in LIB waste. In this review, we address waste LIB collection and segregation approaches, waste LIB treatment approaches, and related economics. We have coined a “green score” concept based on a review of several quantitative analyses from the literature to compare the three mainstream recycling processes: pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling. In addition, we analyze the current trends in policymaking and in government incentive development directed toward promoting LIB waste recycling. Future LIB recycling perspectives are analyzed, and opportunities and threats to LIB recycling are presented.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Extraction and Separation Processes · Advancements in Battery Materials · Recycling and Waste Management Techniques
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Sun, Y.-K. A rising tide of Co-free chemistries for li-ion batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 1774–1775 (2022).10.1021/acsenergylett.2c00908 ↗
2. Mohammadi, F. & Saif, M. A comprehensive overview of electric vehicle batteries market. e-Prime-Adv. Electr. Eng. Electr. Energy. 3, 100127 (2023).10.1016/j.prime.2023.100127 ↗
3. Li, M., Lu, J., Chen, Z. & Amine, K. 30 years of lithium‐ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 30, 1800561 (2018).10.1002/adma.201800561 ↗
4. Blomgren, G. E. The development and future of lithium ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A5019 (2016).10.1149/2.0251701jes ↗
5. Agrawal, R. & Pandey, G. Solid polymer electrolytes: materials designing and all-solid-state battery applications: an overview. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 41, 223001 (2008).10.1088/0022-3727/41/22/223001 ↗
6. Xue, C., Zhou, H., Wu, Q., Wu, X. & Xu, X. Impact of incentive policies and other socio-economic factors on electric vehicle market share: A panel data analysis from the 20 countries. Sustainability 13, 2928 (2021).10.3390/su13052928 ↗
7. Yadlapalli, R. T., Kotapati, A., Kandipati, R. & Koritala, C. S. A review on energy efficient technologies for electric vehicle applications. J. Energy Storage 50, 104212 (2022).10.1016/j.est.2022.104212 ↗
8. Richa, K., Babbitt, C. W., Gaustad, G. & Wang, X. A future perspective on lithium-ion battery waste flows from electric vehicles. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 83, 63–76 (2014).10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.11.008 ↗
9. Islam, M. T. & Iyer-Raniga, U. Lithium-ion battery recycling in the circular economy: a review. Recycling 7, 33 (2022).10.3390/recycling7030033 ↗
10. Manthiram, A. An outlook on lithium ion battery technology. ACS Cent. Sci. 3, 1063–1069 (2017).10.1021/acscentsci.7b00288 ↗
11. Purwanto, A. et al. NCA cathode material: synthesis methods and performance enhancement efforts. Mater. Res. Express 5, 122001 (2018).10.1088/2053-1591/aae167 ↗
12. Manthiram, A. A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry. Nat. Commun. 11, 1550 (2020).10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0 ↗
13. Helbig, C., Bradshaw, A. M., Wietschel, L., Thorenz, A. & Tuma, A. Supply risks associated with lithium-ion battery materials. J. Clean. Prod. 172, 274–286 (2018).10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.122 ↗
14. Ryu, H.-H., Sun, H. H., Myung, S.-T., Yoon, C. S. & Sun, Y.-K. Reducing cobalt from lithium-ion batteries for the electric vehicle era. Energ. Environ. Sci. 14, 844–852 (2021).10.1039/D0EE03581E ↗
15. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral commodity summaries 2023. U.S. Geological Survey, 210 (2023).
16. Mohsin, M., Picot, A. & Maussion, P. A new lead-acid battery state-of-health evaluation method using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for second life in rural electrification systems. J. Energy Storage 52, 104647 (2022).10.1016/j.est.2022.104647 ↗
17. Pang, Z. et al. A new method for determining SOH of lithium batteries using the real-part ratio of EIS specific frequency impedance. J. Energy Storage 72, 108693 (2023).10.1016/j.est.2023.108693 ↗
18. Hannan, M. A., Lipu, M. H., Hussain, A. & Mohamed, A. A review of lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle applications: challenges and recommendations. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 78, 834–854 (2017).10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.001 ↗
19. Hlal, M. I., Ramachandaramurthy, V. K., Sarhan, A., Pouryekta, A. & Subramaniam, U. Optimum battery depth of discharge for off-grid solar PV/battery system. J. Energy Storage 26, 100999 (2019).10.1016/j.est.2019.100999 ↗
20. Xiong, R., Tian, J., Mu, H. & Wang, C. A systematic model-based degradation behavior recognition and health monitoring method for lithium-ion batteries. Appl. Energy 207, 372–383 (2017).10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.05.124 ↗
21. Li, R., Hong, J., Zhang, H. & Chen, X. Data-driven battery state of health estimation based on interval capacity for real-world electric vehicles. Energy 257, 124771 (2022).10.1016/j.energy.2022.124771 ↗
22. Zou, Y., Hu, X., Ma, H. & Li, S. E. Combined state of charge and state of health estimation over lithium-ion battery cell cycle lifespan for electric vehicles. J. Power Sources 273, 793–803 (2015).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.09.146 ↗
23. Xiong, R., Li, L. & Tian, J. Towards a smarter battery management system: a critical review on battery state of health monitoring methods. J. Power Sources 405, 18–29 (2018).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.10.019 ↗
24. Ezpeleta, I. et al. Characterisation of commercial Li‐ion batteries using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. ChemistrySelect 7, e202104464 (2022).10.1002/slct.202104464 ↗
25. Galeotti, M., Cinà, L., Giammanco, C., Cordiner, S. & Di Carlo, A. Performance analysis and SOH (state of health) evaluation of lithium polymer batteries through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Energy 89, 678–686 (2015).10.1016/j.energy.2015.05.148 ↗
26. Xiong, R., Li, L., Li, Z., Yu, Q. & Mu, H. An electrochemical model based degradation state identification method of Lithium-ion battery for all-climate electric vehicles application. Appl. Energy 219, 264–275 (2018).10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.053 ↗
27. Chen, L., Lü, Z., Lin, W., Li, J. & Pan, H. A new state-of-health estimation method for lithium-ion batteries through the intrinsic relationship between ohmic internal resistance and capacity. Measurement 116, 586–595 (2018).10.1016/j.measurement.2017.11.016 ↗
28. Cai, L. et al. Multiobjective optimization of data-driven model for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation with short-term feature. IEEE Trans. Power Electron 35, 11855–11864 (2020).10.1109/TPEL.2020.2987383 ↗
29. Jiang, S. & Song, Z. Estimating the state of health of lithium-ion batteries with a high discharge rate through impedance. Energies 14, 4833 (2021).10.3390/en14164833 ↗
30. Bhar, M., Ghosh, S., Krishnamurthy, S., Kaliprasad, Y. & Martha, S. K. A review on spent lithium-ion battery recycling: from collection to black mass recovery. RSC Sustain. 1, 1150–1167 (2023).10.1039/D3SU00086A ↗
31. Werner, D., Peuker, U. A. & Mütze, T. Recycling chain for spent lithium-ion batteries. Metals 10, 316 (2020).10.3390/met10030316 ↗
32. Alipanah, M., Saha, A. K., Vahidi, E. & Jin, H. Value recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries: a review on technologies, environmental impacts, economics, and supply chain. Clean. Technol. Recy. 1, 152–184 (2021).10.3934/ctr.2021008 ↗
33. Richa, K., Babbitt, C. W. & Gaustad, G. Eco‐efficiency analysis of a lithium‐ion battery waste hierarchy inspired by circular economy. J. Ind. Ecol. 21, 715–730 (2017).10.1111/jiec.12607 ↗
34. Saxena, S., Le Floch, C., MacDonald, J. & Moura, S. Quantifying EV battery end-of-life through analysis of travel needs with vehicle powertrain models. J. Power Sources 282, 265–276 (2015).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.01.072 ↗
35. Haram, M. H. S. M. et al. Feasibility of utilising second life EV batteries: applications, lifespan, economics, environmental impact, assessment, and challenges. Alex. Eng. J. 60, 4517–4536 (2021).10.1016/j.aej.2021.03.021 ↗
36. Neubauer, J., Smith, K., Wood, E. & Pesaran, A. Identifying and overcoming critical barriers to widespread second use of PEV batteries. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO (United States), (2015).10.2172/1171780 ↗
37. Zhao, Y. et al. A review on battery market trends, second-life reuse, and recycling. Sustain. Chem. 2, 167–205 (2021).10.3390/suschem2010011 ↗
38. Ahmadi, L., Young, S. B., Fowler, M., Fraser, R. A. & Achachlouei, M. A. A cascaded life cycle: reuse of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs in energy storage systems. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 22, 111–124 (2017).10.1007/s11367-015-0959-7 ↗
39. DeRousseau, M., Gully, B., Taylor, C., Apelian, D. & Wang, Y. Repurposing used electric car batteries: a review of options. JOM 69, 1575–1582 (2017).10.1007/s11837-017-2368-9 ↗
40. Martinez-Laserna, E. et al. Technical viability of battery second life: a study from the ageing perspective. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 54, 2703–2713 (2018).10.1109/TIA.2018.2801262 ↗
41. Hua, Y. et al. Toward sustainable reuse of retired lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 168, 105249 (2021).10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105249 ↗
42. Sloop, S. E. et al. Cathode healing methods for recycling of lithium-ion batteries. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 22, e00113 (2019).
43. Li, X., Zhang, J., Song, D., Song, J. & Zhang, L. Direct regeneration of recycled cathode material mixture from scrapped LiFePO4 batteries. J. Power Sources 345, 78–84 (2017).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.01.118 ↗
44. Hanisch, C. et al. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: a novel method to separate coating and foil of electrodes. J. Clean. Prod. 108, 301–311 (2015).10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.026 ↗
45. Lombardo, G., Ebin, B., Foreman, M. R. S. J., Steenari, B.-M. & Petranikova, M. Incineration of EV lithium-ion batteries as a pretreatment for recycling–determination of the potential formation of hazardous by-products and effects on metal compounds. J. Hazard. Mater. 393, 122372 (2020).10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122372 ↗
46. Zhang, G. et al. A sustainable process for the recovery of anode and cathode materials derived from spent lithium-ion batteries. Sustainability 11, 2363 (2019).10.3390/su11082363 ↗
47. Zachmann, N., Petranikova, M. & Ebin, B. Electrolyte recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries using a low temperature thermal treatment process. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 118, 351–361 (2023).10.1016/j.jiec.2022.11.020 ↗
48. Hu, X. et al. Complex gas formation during combined mechanical and thermal treatments of spent lithium-ion-battery cells. J. Hazard. Mater. 431, 128541 (2022).10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128541 ↗
49. Yang, Y., Huang, G., Xu, S., He, Y. & Liu, X. Thermal treatment process for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Hydrometallurgy 165, 390–396 (2016).10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.09.025 ↗
50. Lombardo, G., Ebin, B., St. J. Foreman, M. R., Steenari, B.-M. & Petranikova, M. Chemical transformations in Li-ion battery electrode materials by carbothermic reduction. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 13668–13679 (2019).10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06540 ↗
51. Haldar, S. K. Mineral exploration: principles and applications. (Elsevier, 2018).10.1016/B978-0-12-814022-2.00001-0 ↗
52. Yue, Y. et al. Recovering valuable metals from spent lithium ion battery via a combination of reduction thermal treatment and facile acid leaching. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 10445–10453 (2018).10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b01805 ↗
53. Fu, Y. et al. Microwave reduction enhanced leaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Alloy. Compd. 832, 154920 (2020).10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.154920 ↗
54. Zhao, Y., Liu, B., Zhang, L. & Guo, S. Microwave-absorbing properties of cathode material during reduction roasting for spent lithium-ion battery recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 384, 121487 (2020).10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121487 ↗
55. Fu, Y. et al. Improved hydrometallurgical extraction of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries via a closed-loop process. J. Alloy. Compd. 847, 156489 (2020).10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.156489 ↗
56. Peng, C., Liu, F., Wang, Z., Wilson, B. P. & Lundström, M. Selective extraction of lithium (Li) and preparation of battery grade lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) from spent Li-ion batteries in nitrate system. J. Power Sources 415, 179–188 (2019).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.072 ↗
57. Lin, J. et al. Conversion mechanisms of selective extraction of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries by sulfation roasting. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 18482–18489 (2020).10.1021/acsami.0c00420 ↗
58. Barrios, O. C., González, Y. C., Barbosa, L. I. & Orosco, P. Chlorination roasting of the cathode material contained in spent lithium-ion batteries to recover lithium, manganese, nickel and cobalt. Miner. Eng. 176, 107321 (2022).10.1016/j.mineng.2021.107321 ↗
59. Windisch-Kern, S., Holzer, A., Ponak, C. & Raupenstrauch, H. Pyrometallurgical lithium-ion-battery recycling: approach to limiting lithium slagging with the InduRed reactor concept. Processes 9, 84 (2021).10.3390/pr9010084 ↗
60. Gallo, A., Marzo, A., Fuentealba, E. & Alonso, E. High flux solar simulators for concentrated solar thermal research: a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 77, 1385–1402 (2017).10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.056 ↗
61. Halmann, M., Steinfeld, A., Epstein, M. & Vishnevetsky, I. in Encyclopedia of Aluminum and Its Alloys, Two-Volume Set (Print) 2771–2777 (CRC Press, 2018).
62. Nuraeni, B. A., Nababan, D. C., Putera, A. & Rhamdhani, M. A. In: TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition. 187–199 (Springer).
63. Shaw-Stewart, J. et al. Aqueous solution discharge of cylindrical lithium-ion cells. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 22, e00110 (2019).
64. Ojanen, S., Lundström, M., Santasalo-Aarnio, A. & Serna-Guerrero, R. Challenging the concept of electrochemical discharge using salt solutions for lithium-ion batteries recycling. Waste Manag. 76, 242–249 (2018).10.1016/j.wasman.2018.03.045 ↗
65. Wu, L., Zhang, F.-S., He, K., Zhang, Z.-Y. & Zhang, C.-C. Avoiding thermal runaway during spent lithium-ion battery recycling: a comprehensive assessment and a new approach for battery discharge. J. Clean. Prod. 380, 135045 (2022).10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135045 ↗
66. Kaas, A., Wilke, C., Vanderbruggen, A. & Peuker, U. A. Influence of different discharge levels on the mechanical recycling efficiency of lithium-ion batteries. Waste Manag. 172, 1–10 (2023).10.1016/j.wasman.2023.08.042 ↗
67. Natarajan, S. & Aravindan, V. Recycling strategies for spent Li-ion battery mixed cathodes. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 2101–2103 (2018).10.1021/acsenergylett.8b01233 ↗
68. Lei, S. et al. Strengthening valuable metal recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries by environmentally friendly reductive thermal treatment and electrochemical leaching. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 7053–7062 (2021).10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c00937 ↗
69. Li, L. et al. Recovery of metals from spent lithium-ion batteries with organic acids as leaching reagents and environmental assessment. J. Power Sources 233, 180–189 (2013).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.089 ↗
70. Meshram, P., Pandey, B. D. & Mankhand, T. R. Recovery of valuable metals from cathodic active material of spent lithium ion batteries: Leaching and kinetic aspects. Waste Manag. 45, 306–313 (2015).10.1016/j.wasman.2015.05.027 ↗
71. Zheng, X. et al. Spent lithium-ion battery recycling—Reductive ammonia leaching of metals from cathode scrap by sodium sulphite. Waste Manag. 60, 680–688 (2017).10.1016/j.wasman.2016.12.007 ↗
72. Paulino, J. F., Busnardo, N. G. & Afonso, J. C. Recovery of valuable elements from spent Li-batteries. J. Hazard. Mater. 150, 843–849 (2008).10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.10.048 ↗
73. Li, L. et al. Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries by ultrasonic-assisted leaching process. J. Power Sources 262, 380–385 (2014).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.04.013 ↗
74. Jegan Roy, J., Srinivasan, M. & Cao, B. Bioleaching as an eco-friendly approach for metal recovery from spent NMC-based lithium-ion batteries at a high pulp density. ACS Sustain. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 3060–3069 (2021).10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06573 ↗
75. Bahaloo-Horeh, N. & Mousavi, S. M. Enhanced recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries through optimization of organic acids produced by Aspergillus niger. Waste Manag. 60, 666–679 (2017).10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.034 ↗
76. Biswal, B. K. et al. Biological leaching and chemical precipitation methods for recovery of Co and Li from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 12343–12352 (2018).10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b02810 ↗
77. Gao, W. et al. Lithium carbonate recovery from cathode scrap of spent lithium-ion battery: a closed-loop process. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 1662–1669 (2017).10.1021/acs.est.6b03320 ↗
78. Meshram, P., Pandey, B. & Mankhand, T. Hydrometallurgical processing of spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs) in the presence of a reducing agent with emphasis on kinetics of leaching. Chem. Eng. J. 281, 418–427 (2015).10.1016/j.cej.2015.06.071 ↗
79. Sa, Q. et al. Synthesis of high performance LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 from lithium ion battery recovery stream. J. Power Sources 282, 140–145 (2015).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.02.046 ↗
80. Dhiman, S. & Gupta, B. Partition studies on cobalt and recycling of valuable metals from waste Li-ion batteries via solvent extraction and chemical precipitation. J. Clean. Prod. 225, 820–832 (2019).10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.004 ↗
81. Xu, X. et al. Role of Li‐ion depletion on electrode surface: underlying mechanism for electrodeposition behavior of lithium metal anode. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2002390 (2020).10.1002/aenm.202002390 ↗
82. Lu, J., Dreisinger, D. & Glück, T. Manganese electrodeposition—a literature review. Hydrometallurgy 141, 105–116 (2014).10.1016/j.hydromet.2013.11.002 ↗
83. Kim, K., Raymond, D., Candeago, R. & Su, X. Selective cobalt and nickel electrodeposition for lithium-ion battery recycling through integrated electrolyte and interface control. Nat. Commun. 12, 6554 (2021).
84. Freitas, M. & Garcia, E. Electrochemical recycling of cobalt from cathodes of spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 171, 953–959 (2007).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.07.002 ↗
85. Zhang, B. et al. A paired electrolysis approach for recycling spent lithium iron phosphate batteries in an undivided molten salt cell. Green. Chem. 22, 8633–8641 (2020).10.1039/D0GC01782E ↗
86. Zhang, B. et al. A green electrochemical process to recover Co and Li from spent LiCoO2-based batteries in molten salts. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 13391–13399 (2019).10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b02657 ↗
87. Li, H. et al. Electrochemical mechanism of recovery of nickel metal from waste lithium ion batteries by molten salt electrolysis. Materials 14, 6875 (2021).10.3390/ma14226875 ↗
88. Liang, J. et al. The electrochemical mechanism of preparing Mn from LiMn2O4 in waste batteries in molten salt. Crystals 11, 1066 (2021).10.3390/cryst11091066 ↗
89. Zhao, J. et al. Extraction of Co and Li2CO3 from cathode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries through a combined acid-leaching and electro-deoxidation approach. J. Hazard. Mater. 379, 120817 (2019).10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.120817 ↗
90. Wang, M., Tan, Q., Liu, L. & Li, J. Efficient separation of aluminum foil and cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using a low-temperature molten salt. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 8287–8294 (2019).10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06694 ↗
91. Mirza, M. et al. Recovery of cobalt from lithium-ion batteries using fluidised cathode molten salt electrolysis. Electrochim. Acta 391, 138846 (2021).10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138846 ↗
92. Sadhukhan, J. & Christensen, M. An in-depth life cycle assessment (LCA) of lithium-ion battery for climate impact mitigation strategies. Energies 14, 5555 (2021).10.3390/en14175555 ↗
93. Rebitzer, G. et al. Life cycle assessment: Part 1: framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications. Environ. Int. 30, 701–720 (2004).10.1016/j.envint.2003.11.005 ↗
94. Chen, Q. et al. Investigating carbon footprint and carbon reduction potential using a cradle-to-cradle LCA approach on lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in China. J. Clean. Prod. 369, 133342 (2022).10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133342 ↗
95. Jiang, S. et al. Environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling and reusing for manufacturing of lithium-ion traction batteries in China. Sci. Total Environ. 811, 152224 (2022).10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152224 ↗
96. Yoo, E., Lee, U., Kelly, J. C. & Wang, M. Life-cycle analysis of battery metal recycling with lithium recovery from a spent lithium-ion battery. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 196, 107040 (2023).10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107040 ↗
97. Nordelöf, A. et al. Methodological approaches to end-of-life modelling in life cycle assessments of lithium-ion batteries. Batteries 5, 51 (2019).10.3390/batteries5030051 ↗
98. Arshad, F. et al. Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries: a critical review. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 180, 106164 (2022).10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106164 ↗
99. Mohr, M., Peters, J. F., Baumann, M. & Weil, M. Toward a cell‐chemistry specific life cycle assessment of lithium‐ion battery recycling processes. J. Ind. Ecol. 24, 1310–1322 (2020).10.1111/jiec.13021 ↗
100. Kallitsis, E., Korre, A. & Kelsall, G. H. Life cycle assessment of recycling options for automotive Li-ion battery packs. J. Clean. Prod. 371, 133636 (2022).10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133636 ↗