journal article·2023-06-27

Possible alternatives for using kraft lignin as activated carbon in pulp mills – a review

Tatiana Aurora Condezo Castro, Marcelo Cardoso, Ana Augusta Passos Rezende, Angélica de Cássia Oliveira Carneiro, Larissa Quartaroli, Cláudio Mudadu Silva

Publisher page

Abstract

Abstract The uses of kraft lignin (KL), obtained from the black liquor (BL) in the pulping process, allow the production of activated carbon (AC), a product with high added value in the pulp mill. The AC can be used in three different sectors in a cellulose pulp mill: sectorial treatment of the cellulosic pulp bleaching filtrates; wastewater treatment; and in the treatment of water received by the mill. Thus, this article considers the steps in the production of AC, their types, and the advantages and challenges of its use in the kraft cellulose pulp mill as well as in other industries.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Lignin and Wood Chemistry · Enzyme-mediated dye degradation · Advanced Cellulose Research Studies

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Department of Forest Engineering , Universidade Federal de Viçosa , Avenida P. H. Rolfs, sem número Campus Viçosa , Viçosa , Minas Gerais , 36570-900 , Brazil

Department of Chemical Engineering , Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , , Pampulha , Belo Horizonte , , Brazil

Department of Civil Engineering , Universidade Federal de Viçosa , , Viçosa, Minas Gerais , , Brazil

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. Abdel-Aziz, M.A., Younis, S.A., Moustafa, Y.M., and Khalil, M.M.H. (2019). Synthesis of recyclable carbon/lignin biocomposite sorbent for in-situ uptake of BTX contaminants from wastewater. J. Environ. Manag. 233: 459–470, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.044.10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.044 ↗
2. Acemioglu, B., Samil, A., Alma, M.H., and Gundogan, R. (2003). Copper (II) removal from aqueous solution by organosolv lignin and its recovery. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 89: 1537–1541, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.12251.10.1002/app.12251 ↗
3. Ademiluyi, F.T. and David-West, E.O. (2012). Effect of chemical activation on the adsorption of heavy metals using activated carbons from waste materials. ISRN Chem. Eng. 2012: 1–5, https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/674209.10.5402/2012/674209 ↗
4. Adesida, A.A., Carrier, A., Adams, M., Walker, T.R., Oakes, K., Nganou, C., Fahad, M., and Zhang, X. (2022). Simultaneous degradation of persistent organic pollutants and heavy metal removal via an electrochemical filtration system: a case study on a pulp mill wastewater effluent. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 6: 100258, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100258.10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100258 ↗
5. Ahmida, K., Darmoon, M., Al-tohami, F., Erhayem, M., and Zidan, M. (2015). Effect of physical and chemical preparation on characteristics of activated carbon from agriculture solid waste and their potential application. Int. Conf. Chem. Civ. Environ. Eng 83–87, https://doi.org/10.15242/IICBE.C0615015.10.15242/IICBE.C0615015 ↗
6. Akiba, N., Omori, A.T., and Gaubeur, I. (2022). Kraft lignin and its derivates – a study on the adsorption of mono and multielement metals, potential use for noble metal recycling and an alternative material for solid base catalyst. Chemosphere 308: 136538, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136538.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136538 ↗
7. Alvarino, T., Komesli, O., Suarez, S., Lema, J.M., and Omil, F. (2016). The potential of the innovative SeMPAC process for enhancing the removal of recalcitrant organic micropollutants. J. Hazard Mater. 308: 29–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.01.040.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.01.040 ↗
8. Aly-Eldeen, M.A., El-Sayed, A.A.M., Salem, D.M.S.A., and Zokm, G.M. El. (2018). The uptake of Eriochrome Black T dye from aqueous solutions utilizing waste activated sludge: adsorption process optimization using factorial design. Egypt. J. Aquat. Res. 44: 179–186, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2018.09.001.10.1016/j.ejar.2018.09.001 ↗
9. Araujo, D.M., Yoshida, M.I., Stapelfeldt, F., Carvalho, C.F., Donnici, C.L., and Kastner, G.F. (2009). Estudos comparativos entre carvão ativado e resina de troca iônica para adsorção de ouro, cobre e ferro. Rev. Esc. Minas. 62: 463–468, https://doi.org/10.1590/s0370-44672009000400008.10.1590/S0370-44672009000400008 ↗
10. Asimakopoulos, G., Baikousi, M., Constantinos, S., Bourlinos, A.B., Zboril, R., and Karakassides, M.A. (2021). Advanced Cr(VI) sorption properties of activated carbon produced via pyrolysis of the “Posidonia oceanica” seagrass. J. Hazard Mater. 405: 124274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124274.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124274 ↗
11. Baloo, L., Isa, M.H., Sapari, N.B., Jagaba, A.H., Wei, L.J., Yavari, S., Razali, R., and Vasu, R. (2021). Adsorptive removal of methylene blue and acid orange 10 dyes from aqueous solutions using oil palm wastes-derived activated carbons. Alex. Eng. J. 60: 5611–5629, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.04.044.10.1016/j.aej.2021.04.044 ↗
12. Barbier, S. and Hamel, J. (2018). Lignin innovations. FPInnovation: 1–17.
13. Bedia, J., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., and Cordero, T. (2007). Water vapour adsorption on lignin-based activated carbons. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 83: 548–557, https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.1698.10.1002/jctb.1698 ↗
14. Benali, M., Périn-Levasseur, Z., Savulescu, L., Kouisni, L., Jemaa, N., Kudra, T., and Paleologou, M. (2014). Implementation of lignin-based biorefinery into a Canadian softwood kraft pulp mill: optimal resources integration and economic viability assessment. Biomass Bioenergy 67: 473–482, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.08.022.10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.08.022 ↗
15. Bergna, D., Varila, T., Romar, H., and Lassi, U. (2018). Comparison of the properties of activated carbons produced in one-stage and two-stage processes. J. Carbon Res. 4: 1–10, https://doi.org/10.3390/c4030041.10.20944/preprints201805.0114.v2 ↗
16. Berlin, A. and Balakshin, M. (2014). Industrial lignins: analysis, properties, and applications. Bioenergy Res. Adv. Appl. 315–336, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59561-4.00018-8.10.1016/B978-0-444-59561-4.00018-8 ↗
17. Bernardo, M., Lapa, N., Matos, I., and Fonseca, I. (2016). Critical discussion on activated carbons from bio-wastes: environmental risk assessment. Boletín del Grup. Español del Carbón 40: 18–21.
18. Blanco, F., Vilanova, X., Fierro, V., Celzard, A., Ivanov, P., Llobet, E., Cañellas, N., Ramírez, J.L., and Correig, X. (2008). Fabrication and characterisation of microporous activated carbon-based pre-concentrators for benzene vapours. Sensor. Actuator. B 132: 90–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2008.01.016.10.1016/j.snb.2008.01.016 ↗
19. Brazil, T.R., Baldan, M.R., Massi, M., and Rezende, M.C. (2017). Structural behavior of coal obtained from Kraft lignin at different carbonizing rates. Mater. Today Proc. 4: 11617–11623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.09.073.10.1016/j.matpr.2017.09.073 ↗
20. Brazil, T.R., Gonçalves, M., dos Anjos, E.G.R., de Oliveira Junior, M.S., and Rezende, M.C. (2022a). Microwave-assisted production of activated carbon in an adapted domestic oven from lignocellulosic waste. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery: 0123456789, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-02192-4.10.1007/s13399-021-02192-4 ↗
21. Brazil, T.R., Gonçalves, M., Junior, M.S.O., and Rezende, M.C. (2020). A statistical approach to optimize the activated carbon production from Kraft lignin based on conventional and microwave processes. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 308: 110485, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2020.110485.10.1016/j.micromeso.2020.110485 ↗
22. Brazil, T.R., Gonçalves, M., Junior, M.S.O., and Rezende, M.C. (2022b). Sustainable process to produce activated carbon from Kraft lignin impregnated with H3PO4 using microwave pyrolysis. Biomass Bioenergy 156: 106333, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106333.10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106333 ↗
23. Brazil, T.R., Junior, M.S.O., Baldan, M.R., Massi, M., and Rezende, M.C. (2018). Effect of different superficial treatments on structural, morphological and superficial area of Kraft lignin based charcoal. Vib. Spectrosc. 99: 130–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2018.08.021.10.1016/j.vibspec.2018.08.021 ↗
24. CABOT (2021). Activated carbon, Available at: https://www.cabotcorp.com/solutions/products-plus/activated-carbon.
25. Cabrera, M.N. (2017). Pulp mill wastewater: characteristics and treatment. Biol. Wastewater Treat. Resour. Recover. 119–139, https://doi.org/10.5772/67537.10.5772/67537 ↗
26. Cardoso, M. (1998). Análise da unidade de recuperação do licor negro de eucalipto no processo “kraft”, avaliando alternativas de processamento, Thesis, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, p. 171.
27. Carrott, P.J.M., Carrott, M.M.L.R., Suhas, Mourão, P.A.M., Guerrero, C.I., and Delgado, L.A. (2008a). Reactivity of Cork and lignin for the production of activated carbons. Mater. Sci. Forum 587–588: 618–622, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.587-588.618.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.587-588.618 ↗
28. Carrott, P.J.M., Suhas, Ribeiro, M.M.L.C., Guerrero, C.I., and Delgado, L.A. (2008b). Reactivity and porosity development during pyrolysis and physical activation in CO2 or steam of kraft and hydrolytic lignins. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 82: 264–271, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2008.04.004.10.1016/j.jaap.2008.04.004 ↗
29. Cazetta, A.L., Vargas, A.M.M., Nogami, E.M., Kunita, M.H., Guilherme, M.R., Martins, A.C., Silva, T.L., Moraes, J.C.G., and Almeida, V.C. (2011). NaOH-activated carbon of high surface area produced from coconut shell: kinetics and equilibrium studies from the methylene blue adsorption. Chem. Eng. J. 174: 117–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.08.058.10.1016/j.cej.2011.08.058 ↗
30. Cecen, F. and Aktas, O. (2011). Activated carbon for water and wastewater treatment. Wiley VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
31. Chairman, D.S.J., Williamson, I.A., Broadbent, M.M., Schmidtlein, R.K., and Kearns, J.E. (2018). Certain activated carbon from China, Second Review 4797. U.S. International Trade Commission, pp. 1–28. https://www.usitc.gov/publications/701_731/pub4797.pdf.
32. Chaudhary, M., Suhas, Kushwaha, S., Chaudhary, S., Tyagi, I., Dehghani, M.H., Inbaraj, B.S., Goscianska, J., and Sharma, M. (2022). Studies on the removal of phenol and nitrophenols from water by activated carbon developed from demineralized kraft lignin. Agronomy 12: 1–19, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102564.10.3390/agronomy12102564 ↗
33. Chaudhary, M., Suhas, Singh, R., Tyagi, I., Ahmed, J., Chaudhary, S., and Kushwaha, S. (2021a). Microporous activated carbon as adsorbent for the removal of noxious anthraquinone acid dyes: role of adsorbate functionalization. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9: 106308, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106308.10.1016/j.jece.2021.106308 ↗
34. Chaudhary, M., Suhas, Singh, R., Yilmaz, M., Chaudhary, S., and Kushwaha, S. (2021b). Role of the similar molecular weight dyes on the adsorption by activated carbon. Desalination Water Treat. 244: 343–354, https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.27953.10.5004/dwt.2021.27953 ↗
35. Chen, P., Zhang, Q., Shu, R., Xu, Y., Ma, L., and Wang, T. (2017). Catalytic depolymerization of the hydrolyzed lignin over mesoporous catalysts. Bioresour. Technol. 226: 125–131, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.030.10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.030 ↗
36. Chu, S., Subrahmanyam, A.V., and Huber, G.W. (2013). The pyrolysis chemistry of a β-O-4 type oligomeric lignin model compound. Green Chem. 15: 125–136, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2gc36332a.10.1039/C2GC36332A ↗
37. Colodette, J.L. and Gomes, F.J. (2015). Branqueamento de Polpa Celulosica. Editora UFV, Viçosa.
38. Correa, C.R., Otto, T., and Kruse, A. (2017). Influence of the biomass components on the pore formation of activated carbon. Biomass Bioenergy 97: 53–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.12.017.10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.12.017 ↗
39. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marque, D., Rodríguez-Mirasol, José, Cordero, T., and Rodriguez, J.J. (2007a). Adsorption of aromatic compounds on activated carbons from lignin: kinetic study. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 46: 2853–2860, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie061445k.10.1021/ie061445k ↗
40. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Díaz, F.J., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Cordero, T., and Rodríguez, J.J. (2007b). Activated carbons from lignin: their application in liquid phase adsorption. Separ. Sci. Technol. 42: 3363–3389, https://doi.org/10.1080/01496390701626800.10.1080/01496390701626800 ↗
41. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Díaz, F.J., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Rodríguez, J.J., and Cordero, T. (2010). Equilibrium and kinetic study of Congo red adsorption onto lignin-based activated carbons. Transport Porous Media 83: 573–590, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-009-9460-8.10.1007/s11242-009-9460-8 ↗
42. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Díaz, F.J., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Rodríguez, J.J., and Cordero, T. (2011a). Lignin-based activated carbons as adsorbents for crystal violet removal from aqueous solutions. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 00: 1–11.10.1002/ep.10560 ↗
43. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Díaz, F.J., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Rodríguez, J.J., and Cordero, T. (2012). Adsorbent ability of lignin-based activated carbons for the removal of p-nitrophenol from aqueous solutions. Chem. Eng. J. 184: 176–183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.01.026.10.1016/j.cej.2012.01.026 ↗
44. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Leiva, A., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., and Cordero, T. (2011b). Adsorption of oxygen-containing aromatics used in petrochemical, pharmaceutical and food industries by means of lignin based active carbons. Adsorption 17: 539–550, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10450-010-9319-x.10.1007/s10450-010-9319-x ↗
45. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Cordero, T., and Rodríguez, J.J. (2007c). Adsorption of aromatic compounds on activated carbons from lignin: equilibrium and thermodynamic study. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 46: 4982–4990, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie061415h.10.1021/ie061415h ↗
46. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Rodríguez, J.J., and Cordero, T. (2009). Lignin-based activated carbons for adsorption of sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate: equilibrium and kinetic studies. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 332: 39–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2008.12.031.10.1016/j.jcis.2008.12.031 ↗
47. Cotoruelo, L.M., Marqués, M.D., Rodríguez-Mirasol, J., Rodríguez, J.J., and Cordero, T. (2011c). Cationic dyes removal by multilayer adsorption on activated carbons from lignin. J. Porous Mater. 18: 693–702, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10934-010-9428-7.10.1007/s10934-010-9428-7 ↗
48. da Mata, R.A., Morais, I.L.H., and Silva, C.M. (2020). Characterization of thermophilic aerobic granular sludge for the treatment of bleached kraft pulp mill effluent. Bioresources 15: 7191–7206, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.3.7191-7206.10.15376/biores.15.3.7191-7206 ↗
49. de Moraes, N.P., Boldrin, F.H.C., Campos, T.M.B., Thim, G.P., Lianqing, Y., de Vasconcelos Lanza, M.R., and Rodrigues, L.A. (2023). Black-wattle tannin/kraft lignin H3PO4-activated carbon xerogels as excellent and sustainable adsorbents. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 227: 58–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.125.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.125 ↗
50. Demuner, I.F., Colodette, J.L., Demuner, A.J., and Jardim, C.M. (2019). Biorefinery review: wide-reaching products through kraft lignin. Bioresources 14: 7543–7581, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.14.3.demuner.10.15376/biores.14.3.Demuner ↗
51. Dessbesell, L., Paleologou, M., Leitch, M., Pulkki, R., and Xu, C. (2020). Global lignin supply overview and kraft lignin potential as an alternative for petroleum-based polymers. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 123: 109768, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109768.10.1016/j.rser.2020.109768 ↗
52. Djilani, C., Zaghdoudi, R., Djazi, F., Bouchekima, B., Lallam, A., Modarressi, A., and Rogalski, M. (2015). Adsorption of dyes on activated carbon prepared from apricot stones and commercial activated carbon. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 53: 112–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2015.02.025.10.1016/j.jtice.2015.02.025 ↗
53. Egbosiuba, T.C., Abdulkareem, A.S., Kovo, A.S., Afolabi, E.A., Tijani, J.O., Auta, M., and Roos, W.D. (2020). Ultrasonic enhanced adsorption of methylene blue onto the optimized surface area of activated carbon: adsorption isotherm, kinetics and thermodynamics. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 153: 315–336, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2019.10.016.10.1016/j.cherd.2019.10.016 ↗
54. Feng, J., Zhu, H., Xu, Y., Jiang, J., and Pan, H. (2021). Preparation and characterization of high-performance activated carbon from papermaking black-liquor at low temperature. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 159: 105292, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105292.10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105292 ↗
55. Ferrández-Gómez, B., Cazorla-Amorós, D., and Morallón, E. (2021). Feasibility of electrochemical regeneration of activated carbon used in drinking water treatment plant . Reactor configuration design at a pilot scale. Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 148: 846–857, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2021.02.007.10.1016/j.psep.2021.02.007 ↗
56. Fierro, C.M., Gorka, J., Zazo, J.A., Rodriguez, J.J., Ludwinowicz, J., and Jaroniec, M. (2013). Colloidal templating synthesis and adsorption characteristics of microporous – mesoporous carbons from Kraft lignin. Carbon 62: 233–239, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.06.012.10.1016/j.carbon.2013.06.012 ↗
57. Fierro, V., Schuurman, Y., and Mirodatos, C. (2007a). Simultaneous determination of intrinsic adsorption and diffusion of n-butane in activated carbons by using the TAP reactor. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 160: 241–247.10.1016/S0167-2991(07)80032-2 ↗
58. Fierro, V., Torne-Fernández, V., and Celzard, A. (2007b). Methodical study of the chemical activation of Kraft lignin with KOH and NaOH. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 101: 419–431, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2006.12.004.10.1016/j.micromeso.2006.12.004 ↗
59. Fierro, V., Torné-Fernández, V., and Celzard, A. (2006). Kraft lignin as a precursor for microporous activated carbons prepared by impregnation with ortho-phosphoric acid: synthesis and textural characterisation. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 92: 243–250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2006.01.013.10.1016/j.micromeso.2006.01.013 ↗
60. Fierro, V., Torné-Fernández, V., Celzard, A., and Montané, D. (2007c). Influence of the demineralisation on the chemical activation of Kraft lignin with orthophosphoric acid. J. Hazard Mater. 149: 126–133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.03.056.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.03.056 ↗
61. Fierro, V., Torné-Fernández, V., Montané, D., and Celzard, A. (2005). Study of the decomposition of kraft lignin impregnated with orthophosphoric acid. Thermochim. Acta 433: 142–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2005.02.026.10.1016/j.tca.2005.02.026 ↗
62. Fierro, V., Torné-Fernández, V., Montané, D., and Celzard, A. (2008). Adsorption of phenol onto activated carbons having different textural and surface properties. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 111: 276–284, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2007.08.002.10.1016/j.micromeso.2007.08.002 ↗
63. Foo, K.Y. (2018). Effect of microwave regeneration on the textural network, surface chemistry and adsorptive property of the agricultural waste based activated carbons. Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 116: 461–467, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2018.01.022.10.1016/j.psep.2018.01.022 ↗
64. Foo, K.Y. and Hameed, B.H. (2012). Microwave-assisted regeneration of activated carbon. Bioresour. Technol. 119: 234–240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.061.10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.061 ↗
65. Gabarrell, X., Font, M., Vicent, T., Caminal, G., Sarrà, M., and Blánquez, P. (2012). A comparative life cycle assessment of two treatment technologies for the Grey Lanaset G textile dye: biodegradation by Trametes versicolor and granular activated carbon adsorption. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17: 613–624, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0385-z.10.1007/s11367-012-0385-z ↗
66. Gagliano, E., Falciglia, P.P., Zaker, Y., Karanfil, T., and Roccaro, P. (2021). Microwave regeneration of granular activated carbon saturated with PFAS. Water Res. 198: 117121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117121.10.1016/j.watres.2021.117121 ↗
67. Gamal, M. E., Mousa, H.A., El-naas, M.H., Zacharia, R., and Judd, S. (2018). Bio-regeneration of activated carbon: a comprehensive review. Sep. Purif. Technol. 197: 345–359, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.01.015.10.1016/j.seppur.2018.01.015 ↗
68. Gao, Y., Yue, Q., and Gao, B. (2016). Comparison on physical , chemical, and adsorption properties of activated carbon derived from different solid wastes. Desalination Water Treat. 57: 15503–15514, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1075425.10.1080/19443994.2015.1075425 ↗
69. Gao, Y., Yue, Q., Gao, B., and Li, A. (2020). Insight into activated carbon from different kinds of chemical activating agents: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 746: 141094, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141094.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141094 ↗
70. Gao, Y., Yue, Q., Gao, B., Sun, Y., Wang, W., Li, Q., and Wang, Y. (2013). Preparation of high surface area-activated carbon from lignin of papermaking black liquor by KOH activation for Ni (II) adsorption. Chem. Eng. J. 217: 345–353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.09.038.10.1016/j.cej.2012.09.038 ↗
71. García, A., Toledano, A., Serrano, L., Egüés, I., González, M., Marín, F., and Labidi, J. (2009). Characterization of lignins obtained by selective precipitation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 68: 193–198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2009.05.001.10.1016/j.seppur.2009.05.001 ↗
72. Gavrilescu, D., Puitel, A.C., Dutuc, G., and Craciun, G. (2012). Enviromental impact of pulp and paper mills. Environ. Eng. Manag. J. 11: 81–85, https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2012.012.10.30638/eemj.2012.012 ↗
73. GlobeNewswire (2021). The global activated carbon market, Available at: https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2021/05/24/2234748/0/en/Activated-Carbon-Market-to-Hit-USD-4-064-7-Million-by-2027-Increasing-Adoption-of-Powdered-Charcoal-in-Organic-Contaminants-to-Aid-Growth-Says-Fortune-Business-Insights.html.
74. Gomez-Ceballos, V., Lara-Martín, P.A., Zapata-Benabithe, Z., Velasquez-Jimenez, J.A., and Quintana-Marin, G. (2021). Enhanced efficiency of a chemically modified hyperbranched Kraft lignin in the removal of pharmaceuticals from water at low microgram per liter levels. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9: 106244, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106244.10.1016/j.jece.2021.106244 ↗
75. Gonzalez-Serrano, E., Cordero, T., Rodriguez-Mirasol, J., Cotoruelo, L., and Rodriguez, J.J. (2004). Removal of water pollutants with activated carbons prepared from H 3PO4 activation of lignin from kraft black liquors. Water Res. 38: 3043–3050, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.04.048.10.1016/j.watres.2004.04.048 ↗
76. Gonzalez-Serrano, E., Cordero, T., Rodriguez-Mirasol, J., and Rodriguez, J.J. (1997). Development of porosity upon chemical activation of kraft lignin with ZnCl 2. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36: 4832–4838, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie970261q.10.1021/ie970261q ↗
77. Gouvêa, A.de F.G. (2012). Produçao de briquete a partir da adição da lignina kraft com resíduo da indústria moveleira. Thesis, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, p. 101.
78. Guo, J., Luo, Y., Lua, A.C., Chi, R., Chen, Y., Bao, X., and Xiang, S. (2007). Adsorption of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by activated carbons derived from oil-palm shell. Carbon 45: 330–336, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2006.09.016.10.1016/j.carbon.2006.09.016 ↗
79. Guo, J., Xu, W.S., Chen, Y.L., and Lua, A.C. (2005). Adsorption of NH3 onto activated carbon prepared from palm shells impregnated with H2SO4. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 281: 285–290, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2004.08.101.10.1016/j.jcis.2004.08.101 ↗
80. Guo, X., Zhang, S., and Shanquan, X. (2008). Adsorption of metal ions on lignin. J. Hazard Mater. 151: 134–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.05.065.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.05.065 ↗
81. Guo, Y. and Rockstraw, D.A. (2006). Physical and chemical properties of carbons synthesized from xylan, cellulose, and Kraft lignin by H3PO4 activation. Carbon 44: 1464–1475, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.12.002.10.1016/j.carbon.2005.12.002 ↗
82. Gustafsson, Å., Hale, S., Cornelissen, G., Sjöholm, E., and Gunnarsson, J.S. (2017). Activated carbon from kraft lignin: a sorbent for in situ remediation of contaminated sediments. Environ. Technol. Innov. 7: 160–168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2016.11.001.10.1016/j.eti.2016.11.001 ↗
83. Haq, I., Mazumder, P., and Kalamdhad, A.S. (2020). Recent advances in removal of lignin from paper industry wastewater and its industrial applications – a review. Bioresour. Technol. 312: 123636, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123636.10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123636 ↗
84. Hayashi, J., Kazehaya, A., Muroyama, K., and Watkinson, A.P. (2000). Preparation of activated carbon from lignin by chemical activation. Carbon 38: 1873–1878, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0008-6223(00)00027-0.10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00027-0 ↗
85. Hernández-Abreu, A.B., Álvarez-Torrellas, S., Águeda, V.I., Larriba, M., Delgado, J.A., Calvo, P.A., and García, J. (2020). Enhanced removal of the endocrine disruptor compound Bisphenol A by adsorption onto green-carbon materials. Effect of real effluents on the adsorption process. J. Environ. Manag. 266: 110604, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110604.10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110604 ↗
86. Hernández-Abreu, A.B., Ávarez-Torrellas, S., Rocha, R.P., Pereira, M.F.R., Águeda, V.I., Delgado, J.A., Larriba, M., García, J., and Figueiredo, J.L. (2021). Effective adsorption of the endocrine disruptor compound bisphenol a from water on surface-modified carbon materials. Appl. Surf. Sci. 552: 149513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.149513.10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.149513 ↗
87. Hjaila, K., Baccar, R., Sarrà, M., Gasol, C.M., and Blánquez, P. (2013). Environmental impact associated with activated carbon preparation from olive-waste cake via life cycle assessment. J. Environ. Manag. 130: 242–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.08.061.10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.08.061 ↗
88. Hu, Q.Y., Li, M., Wang, C., and Ji, M. (2015). Influence of powdered activated carbon addition on water quality, sludge properties, and microbial characteristics in the biological treatment of commingled industrial wastewater. J. Hazard Mater. 295: 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.03.070.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.03.070 ↗
89. Huling, S.G., Kan, E., and Wingo, C. (2009). Fenton-driven regeneration of MTBE-spent granular activated carbon – effects of particle size and iron amendment procedures. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 89: 651–658, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.02.002.10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.02.002 ↗
90. Iovino, P., Canzano, S., Capasso, S., Erto, A., and Musmarra, D. (2015). A modeling analysis for the assessment of ibuprofen adsorption mechanism onto activated carbons. Chem. Eng. J. 277: 360–367, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.04.097.10.1016/j.cej.2015.04.097 ↗
91. Irani, M., Rad, L.R., Pourahmad, H., and Haririan, I. (2015). Optimization of the combined adsorption/photo-Fenton method for the simultaneous removal of phenol and paracetamol in a binary system. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 206: 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2014.12.009.10.1016/j.micromeso.2014.12.009 ↗
92. Jardim, J.M., Hart, P.W., Lucia, L., and Jameel, H. (2020). Insights into the potential of hardwood kraft lignin to be a green platform material for emergence of the biorefinery. Polymers 12: 1795, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081795.10.3390/polym12081795 ↗
93. Jemaa, N., Thompson, R., Paleologou, M., and Berry, R.M. (1999). Non-process elements in the kraft cycle. Part I: sources, levels and process effects. Pulp Pap. 100: 47–51.
94. Jiang, C., Wang, X., Hou, B., Hao, C., Li, X., and Wu, J. (2020). Construction of a lignosulfonate − Lysine hydrogel for the adsorption of heavy metal ions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 68: 3050–3060, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07540.10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07540 ↗
95. Jin, X.-J., Yu, Z.-M., and Wu, Y. (2012). Preparation of activated carbon from lignin obtained by straw pulping by koh and K2CO3 Chemical activation. Cellul. Chem. Technol. 46: 79–85.
96. Jusoh, A., Shiung, L.S., and Noor, M.J.M.M. (2007). A simulation study of the removal efficiency of granular activated carbon on cadmium and lead. Desalination 206: 9–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.04.048.10.1016/j.desal.2006.04.048 ↗
97. Kang, H., Park, S., and Rim, Y. (2006). Preparation of activated carbon from paper mill sludge by KOH-activation. Kor. J. Chem. Eng. 23: 948–953, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-006-0013-3.10.1007/s11814-006-0013-3 ↗
98. Kargi, F. and Pamukoglu, M.Y. (2004). Repeated fed-batch biological treatment of pre-treated landfill leachate by powdered activated carbon addition. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 34: 422–428, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2003.11.016.10.1016/j.enzmictec.2003.11.016 ↗
99. Kazzaz, A.E. and Fatehi, P. (2020). Technical lignin and its potential modification routes: a mini-review. Ind. Crop. Prod. 154: 112732, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112732.10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112732 ↗
100. Kim, I.T., Sinha, T.K., Lee, J., Lee, Y., and Oh, J.S. (2021). Ultrasonic treatment: an acid-free green approach toward preparing high-performance activated carbon from lignin. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 60: 2439–2446, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c03627.10.1021/acs.iecr.0c03627 ↗