Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Over the past two centuries, most pandemics have been caused by zoonotic RNA viruses with high mutation, infection, and transmission rates. Due to the importance of understanding the viruses’ role in establishing the latest outbreak pandemics, we briefly discuss their etiology, symptomatology, and epidemiology and then pay close attention to the latest chronic communicable disease, SARS-CoV-2. To date, there are no generally proven effective techniques in the diagnosis, treatment, and spread strategy of viral diseases, so there is a profound need to discover efficient technologies to address these issues. Nanotechnology can be a promising approach for designing more functional and potent therapeutics against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and other viral diseases. Moreover, this review intends to summarize examples of nanostructures that play a role in preventing, diagnosing, and treating COVID-19 and be a comprehensive and helpful review by covering notable and vital applications of nanotechnology-based strategies for improving health and environmental sanitation.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: SARS-CoV-2 detection and testing · SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research · COVID-19 diagnosis using AI
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Centre of Polymer Systems, Tomas Bata University in Zlín, Třída Tomáše Bati 5678 , 76001 Zlín , Czech Republic
Departments of Forest Biomaterials, Chemistry, Campus Boxes 8005, 8204, North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States of America
State Key Laboratory of Bio-based Materials & Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology/Shandong Academy of Sciences , Jinan 250353 , China
University Institute, Tomas Bata University , Zlin 76001 , Czech Republic
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Piret J, Boivin G. Pandemics throughout history. Front Microbiol. 2021;11:3594.10.3389/fmicb.2020.631736 ↗
2. Luby SP. The pandemic potential of Nipah virus. Antivir Res. 2013;100(1):38–43.10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.07.011 ↗
3. Doms RW, Moore JP. HIV-1 membrane fusion: Targets of opportunity. J Cell Biol. 2000;151(2):F9–F14.10.1083/jcb.151.2.F9 ↗
4. Illanes-Álvarez F, Márquez-Ruiz D, Márquez-Coello M, Cuesta-Sancho S, Girón-González JA. Similarities and differences between HIV and SARS-CoV-2. Int J Med Sci. 2021;18(3):846.10.7150/ijms.50133 ↗
5. Piai A, Fu Q, Sharp AK, Bighi B, Brown AM, Chou JJ. NMR Model of the Entire Membrane-Interacting Region of the HIV-1 Fusion Protein and Its Perturbation of Membrane Morphology. J Am Chem Soc. 2021;143(17):6609–15.10.1021/jacs.1c01762 ↗
6. Boily M-C, Baggaley RF, Wang L, Masse B, White RG, Hayes RJ, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9(2):118–29.10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70021-0 ↗
7. Baggaley RF, Boily M-C, White RG, Alary M. Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aids. 2006;20(6):805–12.10.1097/01.aids.0000218543.46963.6d ↗
8. Amin O, Powers J, Bricker KM, Chahroudi A. Understanding viral and immune interplay during vertical transmission of HIV: Implications for cure. Front Immunol. 2021;12:757400.10.3389/fimmu.2021.757400 ↗
9. Chen Z, Julg B. Therapeutic vaccines for the treatment of HIV. Transl Res. 2020;223:61–75.10.1016/j.trsl.2020.04.008 ↗
10. Bailon L, Mothe B, Berman L, Brander C. Novel approaches towards a functional cure of HIV/AIDS. Drugs. 2020;80(9):859–68.10.1007/s40265-020-01322-y ↗
11. Mothe B, Rosás-Umbert M, Coll P, Manzardo C, Puertas MC, Morón-López S, et al. HIVconsv vaccines and romidepsin in early-treated HIV-1-infected individuals: Safety, immunogenicity and effect on the viral reservoir (Study BCN02). Front immunol. 2020;11:823.10.3389/fimmu.2020.00823 ↗
12. Webster RG, Monto AS, Braciale TJ, Lamb RA. Textbook of influenza. Germany: Wiley; 2014.10.1002/9781118636817 ↗
13. Dadonaite B, Gilbertson B, Knight ML, Trifkovic S, Rockman S, Laederach A, et al. The structure of the influenza A virus genome. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4(11):1781–9.10.1038/s41564-019-0513-7 ↗
14. Brankston G, Gitterman L, Hirji Z, Lemieux C, Gardam M. Transmission of influenza A in human beings. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007;7(4):257–65.10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70029-4 ↗
15. Monto AS, Gravenstein S, Elliott M, Colopy M, Schweinle J. Clinical signs and symptoms predicting influenza infection. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(21):3243–7.10.1001/archinte.160.21.3243 ↗
16. Sivanandy P, Xien FZ, Kit LW, Wei YT, En KH, Lynn LC. A review on current trends in the treatment of human infection with H7N9-avian influenza A. J Infect public health. 2019;12(2):153–8.10.1016/j.jiph.2018.08.005 ↗
17. Marty AM, Jones MK. The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is a one health issue. One Health. 2020;9:100123.10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100123 ↗
18. Velavan TP, Meyer CG. The COVID‐19 epidemic. Trop Med Int Health. 2020;25(3):278.10.1111/tmi.13383 ↗
19. Wille M, Holmes EC. Wild birds as reservoirs for diverse and abundant gamma-and deltacoronaviruses. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2020;44(5):631–44.10.1093/femsre/fuaa026 ↗
20. Weiss C, Carriere M, Fusco L, Capua I, Regla-Nava JA, Pasquali M, et al. Toward nanotechnology-enabled approaches against the COVID-19 pandemic. ACS Nano. 2020;14(6):6383–406.10.1021/acsnano.0c03697 ↗
21. Tao K, Tzou PL, Nouhin J, Gupta RK, de Oliveira T, Kosakovsky Pond SL, et al. The biological and clinical significance of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. Nat Rev Genet. 2021;22(12):757–73.10.1038/s41576-021-00408-x ↗
22. Izumi H, Nafie LA, Dukor RK. Conformational variability correlation prediction of transmissibility and neutralization escape ability for multiple mutation SARS-CoV-2 strains using SSSCPreds. ACS Omega. 2021;6(29):19323–9.10.1021/acsomega.1c03055 ↗
23. Zhao S, Ran J, Han L. Exploring the interaction between E484K and N501Y substitutions of SARS-CoV-2 in shaping the transmission advantage of COVID-19 in Brazil: A Modeling Study. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021;105(5):1247.10.4269/ajtmh.21-0412 ↗
24. Tegally H, Wilkinson E, Giovanetti M, Iranzadeh A, Fonseca V, Giandhari J, et al. Detection of a SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern in South Africa. Nature. 2021;592(7854):438–43.10.1038/s41586-021-03402-9 ↗
25. Volz E, Mishra S, Chand M, Barrett JC, Johnson R, Geidelberg L, et al. Assessing transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B. 1.1. 7 in England. Nature. 2021;593(7858):266–9.10.1038/s41586-021-03470-x ↗
26. Davies NG, Jarvis CI, Edmunds WJ, Jewell NP, Diaz-Ordaz K, Keogh RH. Increased mortality in community-tested cases of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B. 1.1. 7. Nature. 2021;593(7858):270–4.10.1038/s41586-021-03426-1 ↗
27. Hart WS, Miller E, Andrews NJ, Waight P, Maini PK, Funk S, et al. Generation time of the alpha and delta SARS-CoV-2 variants: An epidemiological analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(5):603–10.10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00001-9 ↗
28. Dhar MS, Marwal R, Vs R, Ponnusamy K, Jolly B, Bhoyar RC, et al. Genomic characterization and epidemiology of an emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant in Delhi, India. Science. 2021;374(6570):995–9.10.1126/science.abj9932 ↗
29. McCallum M, Walls AC, Sprouse KR, Bowen JE, Rosen LE, Dang HV, et al. Molecular basis of immune evasion by the Delta and Kappa SARS-CoV-2 variants. Science. 2021;374(6575):1621–6.10.1126/science.abl8506 ↗
30. Faria NR, Mellan TA, Whittaker C, Claro IM, Candido DD, Mishra S, et al. Genomics and epidemiology of the P. 1 SARS-CoV-2 lineage in Manaus, Brazil. Science. 2021;372(6544):815–21.10.1126/science.abh2644 ↗
31. Duerr R, Dimartino D, Marier C, Zappile P, Wang G, Lighter J, et al. Dominance of Alpha and Iota variants in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine breakthrough infections in New York City. J Clin Investigation. 2021;131(18):1.10.1172/JCI152702 ↗
32. Alizon S, Haim-Boukobza S, Foulongne V, Verdurme L, Trombert-Paolantoni S, Lecorche E, et al. Rapid spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in some French regions, June 2021. Eurosurveillance. 2021;26(28):2100573.10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.28.2100573 ↗
33. Acevedo ML, Alonso-Palomares L, Bustamante A, Gaggero A, Paredes F, Cortés CP, et al. Infectivity and immune escape of the new SARS-CoV-2 variant of interest Lambda. MedRxiv. 2021.10.1101/2021.06.28.21259673 ↗
34. Davies NG, Abbott S, Barnard RC, Jarvis CI, Kucharski AJ, Munday JD, et al. Estimated transmissibility and impact of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B. 1.1. 7 in England. Science. 2021;372(6538):eabg3055.10.1126/science.abg3055 ↗
35. Xie X, Han J-B, Ma G, Feng X-L, Li X, Zou Q-C, et al. Emerging SARS-CoV-2 B. 1.621/Mu variant is prominently resistant to inactivated vaccine-elicited antibodies. Zool Res. 2021;42(6):789.10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.343 ↗
36. Ghosh N, Nandi S, Saha I. A review on evolution of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants based on spike glycoprotein. Int Immunopharmacol. 2022;105:108565.10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108565 ↗
37. Langone M, Petta L, Cellamare C, Ferraris M, Guzzinati R, Mattioli D, et al. SARS-CoV-2 in water services: Presence and impacts. Environ Pollut. 2021;268:115806.10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115806 ↗
38. Asadi S, Bouvier N, Wexler AS, Ristenpart WD. The coronavirus pandemic and aerosols: Does COVID-19 transmit via expiratory particles?. Aerosol Sci Technol; 2020;54(6):635–8.10.1080/02786826.2020.1749229 ↗
39. Yépiz-Gómez MS, Gerba CP, Bright KR. Survival of respiratory viruses on fresh produce. Food Environ Virol. 2013;5(3):150–6.10.1007/s12560-013-9114-4 ↗
40. McKinney KR, Gong YY, Lewis TG. Environmental transmission of SARS at Amoy Gardens. J Environ Health. 2006;68(9):26.
41. Amirian ES. Potential fecal transmission of SARS-CoV-2: Current evidence and implications for public health. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;95:363–70.10.1016/j.ijid.2020.04.057 ↗
42. Xiao F, Tang M, Zheng X, Liu Y, Li X, Shan H. Evidence for gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology. 2020;158(6):1831–3.e3.10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.055 ↗
43. Du L, Yang Y, Zhang X, Li F. Recent advances in nanotechnology-based COVID-19 vaccines and therapeutic antibodies. Nanoscale. 2022;14(4):1054–74.10.1039/D1NR03831A ↗
44. Palestino G, García-Silva I, González-Ortega O, Rosales-Mendoza S. Can nanotechnology help in the fight against COVID-19? Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther. 2020;18(9):849–64.10.1080/14787210.2020.1776115 ↗
45. Rai M, Bonde S, Yadav A, Bhowmik A, Rathod S, Ingle P, et al. Nanotechnology as a shield against COVID-19: Current advancement and limitations. Viruses. 2021;13(7):1224.10.3390/v13071224 ↗
46. Motiei M, Aboutalebi F, Forouzanfar M, Dormiani K, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Mirahmadi-Zare SZ. Smart co-delivery of miR-34a and cytotoxic peptides (LTX-315 and melittin) by chitosan based polyelectrolyte nanocarriers for specific cancer cell death induction. Mater Sci Eng C. 2021;128:112258.10.1016/j.msec.2021.112258 ↗
47. Tsang HF, Chan LWC, Cho WCS, Yu ACS, Yim AKY, Chan AKC, et al. An update on COVID-19 pandemic: The epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment strategies. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther. 2021;19(7):877–88.10.1080/14787210.2021.1863146 ↗
48. Mao L, Chen Z, Wang Y, Chen C. Design and application of nanoparticles as vaccine adjuvants against human corona virus infection. J Inorg Biochem. 2021;219:111454.10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2021.111454 ↗
49. Duan Y, Wang S, Zhang Q, Gao W, Zhang L. Nanoparticle approaches against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Curr OpSolid State Mater Sci. 2021;25(6):100964.10.1016/j.cossms.2021.100964 ↗
50. Pati R, Shevtsov M, Sonawane A. Nanoparticle vaccines against infectious diseases. Front Immunology. 2018;9:2224.10.3389/fimmu.2018.02224 ↗
51. Zhang N, Li C, Jiang S, Du L. Recent advances in the development of virus-like particle-based flavivirus vaccines. Vaccines. 2020;8(3):481.10.3390/vaccines8030481 ↗
52. Zhang N-N, Li X-F, Deng Y-Q, Zhao H, Huang Y-J, Yang G, et al. A thermostable mRNA vaccine against COVID-19. Cell. 2020;182(5):1271–83.e16.10.1016/j.cell.2020.07.024 ↗
53. Laczkó D, Hogan MJ, Toulmin SA, Hicks P, Lederer K, Gaudette BT, et al. A single immunization with nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccines elicits strong cellular and humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 in mice. Immunity. 2020;53(4):724–32.e7.10.1016/j.immuni.2020.07.019 ↗
54. Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, et al. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(27):2603–15.10.1056/NEJMoa2034577 ↗
55. Walsh EE, Frenck Jr RW, Falsey AR, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of two RNA-based Covid-19 vaccine candidates. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(25):2439–50.10.1056/NEJMoa2027906 ↗
56. Kaiser RA, Haller MC, Apfalter P, Kerschner H, Cejka D. Comparison of BNT162b2 (Pfizer–BioNtech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna) SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine immunogenicity in dialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2021;100(3):697–8.10.1016/j.kint.2021.07.004 ↗
57. Huang WC, Zhou S, He X, Chiem K, Mabrouk MT, Nissly RH, et al. SARS‐CoV‐2 RBD neutralizing antibody induction is enhanced by particulate vaccination. Adv Mater. 2020;32(50):2005637.10.1002/adma.202005637 ↗
58. Peng S, Cao F, Xia Y, Gao XD, Dai L, Yan J, et al. Particulate alum via pickering emulsion for an enhanced COVID‐19 vaccine adjuvant. Adv Mater. 2020;32(40):2004210.10.1002/adma.202004210 ↗
59. Wang N, Shang J, Jiang S, Du L. Subunit vaccines against emerging pathogenic human coronaviruses. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:298.10.3389/fmicb.2020.00298 ↗
60. Kanekiyo M, Wei C-J, Yassine HM, McTamney PM, Boyington JC, Whittle JR, et al. Self-assembling influenza nanoparticle vaccines elicit broadly neutralizing H1N1 antibodies. Nature. 2013;499(7456):102–6.10.1038/nature12202 ↗
61. Tokatlian T, Read BJ, Jones CA, Kulp DW, Menis S, Chang JY, et al. Innate immune recognition of glycans targets HIV nanoparticle immunogens to germinal centers. Science. 2019;363(6427):649–54.10.1126/science.aat9120 ↗
62. Tan TK, Rijal P, Rahikainen R, Keeble AH, Schimanski L, Hussain S, et al. A COVID-19 vaccine candidate using SpyCatcher multimerization of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor-binding domain induces potent neutralising antibody responses. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):1–16.10.1038/s41467-020-20654-7 ↗
63. Walls AC, Fiala B, Schäfer A, Wrenn S, Pham MN, Murphy M, et al. Elicitation of potent neutralizing antibody responses by designed protein nanoparticle vaccines for SARS-CoV-2. Cell. 2020;183(5):1367–82.e17.
64. Powell AE, Zhang K, Sanyal M, Tang S, Weidenbacher PA, Li S, et al. A single immunization with spike-functionalized ferritin vaccines elicits neutralizing antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2 in mice. ACS Cent Sci. 2021;7(1):183–99.10.1021/acscentsci.0c01405 ↗
65. Wang W, Huang B, Zhu Y, Tan W, Zhu M. Ferritin nanoparticle-based SARS-CoV-2 RBD vaccine induces a persistent antibody response and long-term memory in mice. Cell Mol Immunol. 2021;18(3):749–51.10.1038/s41423-021-00643-6 ↗
66. Saunders KO, Lee E, Parks R, Martinez DR, Li D, Chen H, et al. Neutralizing antibody vaccine for pandemic and pre-emergent coronaviruses. Nature. 2021;594(7864):553–9.10.1038/s41586-021-03594-0 ↗
67. Ma X, Zou F, Yu F, Li R, Yuan Y, Zhang Y, et al. Nanoparticle vaccines based on the receptor binding domain (RBD) and heptad repeat (HR) of SARS-CoV-2 elicit robust protective immune responses. Immunity. 2020;53(6):1315–30.e9.10.1016/j.immuni.2020.11.015 ↗
68. Huang X, Kon E, Han X, Zhang X, Kong N, Mitchell MJ, et al. Nanotechnology-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2 variants. Nat Nanotechnol. 2022;17(10):1027–37.10.1038/s41565-022-01174-5 ↗
69. Kumar N, Admane N, Kumari A, Sood D, Grover S, Prajapati VK, et al. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte elicited vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 employing immunoinformatics framework. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):1–14.10.1038/s41598-021-86986-6 ↗
70. Sahoo B, Kant K, Rai NK, Chaudhary DK. Identification of T-cell epitopes in proteins of novel human coronavirus, SARS-Cov-2 for vaccine development. Int J Appl Biol Pharm Technol. 2020;11(2):37–45.
71. Chan Y, Ng SW, Singh SK, Gulati M, Gupta G, Chaudhary SK, et al. Revolutionizing polymer-based nanoparticle-linked vaccines for targeting respiratory viruses: A perspective. Life Sci. 2021;280:119744.10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119744 ↗
72. Mohamed SH, Arafa AS, Mady WH, Fahmy HA, Omer LM, Morsi RE. Preparation and immunological evaluation of inactivated avian influenza virus vaccine encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles. Biologicals. 2018;51:46–53.10.1016/j.biologicals.2017.10.004 ↗
73. Huang T, Song X, Jing J, Zhao K, Shen Y, Zhang X, et al. Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles enhanced the immunogenicity of multivalent DNA vaccination on mice against Trueperella pyogenes infection. J Nanobiotechnol. 2018;16(1):1–15.10.1186/s12951-018-0337-2 ↗
74. Verheul RJ, Slütter B, Bal SM, Bouwstra JA, Jiskoot W, Hennink WE. Covalently stabilized trimethyl chitosan-hyaluronic acid nanoparticles for nasal and intradermal vaccination. J Controlled Release. 2011;156(1):46–52.10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.07.014 ↗
75. Yu H, Lin H, Xie Y, Qu M, Jiang M, Shi J, et al. MUC1 vaccines using β-cyclodextrin grafted chitosan (CS–g–CD) as carrier via host-guest interaction elicit robust immune responses. Chin Chem Lett. 2022;33(11):4882–5.10.1016/j.cclet.2022.02.072 ↗
76. Rocha CE, Silva MF, Guedes AC, Carvalho TP, Eckstein C, Ribeiro NQ, et al. Alginate-chitosan microcapsules improve vaccine potential of gamma-irradiated Listeria monocytogenes against listeriosis in murine model. Int J Biol Macromolecules. 2021;176:567–77.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.056 ↗
77. Stiepel RT, Batty CJ, MacRaild CA, Norton RS, Bachelder E, Ainslie KM. Merozoite surface protein 2 adsorbed onto acetalated dextran microparticles for malaria vaccination. Int J Pharmaceutics. 2021;593:120168.10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.120168 ↗
78. Nakahashi-Ouchida R, Yuki Y, Kiyono H. Cationic pullulan nanogel as a safe and effective nasal vaccine delivery system for respiratory infectious diseases. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2018;14(9):2189–93.10.1080/21645515.2018.1461298 ↗
79. Ferrell KC, Stewart EL, Counoupas C, Ashhurst TM, Britton WJ, Petrovsky N, et al. Intrapulmonary vaccination with delta-inulin adjuvant stimulates non-polarised chemotactic signalling and diverse cellular interaction. Mucosal Immunol. 2021;14(3):762–73.10.1038/s41385-021-00379-6 ↗
80. Bandeira AC, de Oliveira Matos A, Evangelista BS, da Silva SM, Nagib PRA, de Moraes Crespo A, et al. Is it possible to track intracellular chitosan nanoparticles using magnetic nanoparticles as contrast agent? Bioorg Med Chem. 2019;27(12):2637–43.10.1016/j.bmc.2019.04.011 ↗
81. Hiremath J, Kang K-I, Xia M, Elaish M, Binjawadagi B, Ouyang K, et al. Entrapment of H1N1 influenza virus derived conserved peptides in PLGA nanoparticles enhances T cell response and vaccine efficacy in pigs. PLoS One. 2016;11(4):e0151922.10.1371/journal.pone.0151922 ↗
82. Singh J, Pandit S, Bramwell VW, Alpar HO. Diphtheria toxoid loaded poly-(ε-caprolactone) nanoparticles as mucosal vaccine delivery systems. Methods. 2006;38(2):96–105.10.1016/j.ymeth.2005.11.003 ↗
83. Zhang D, Atochina-Vasserman EN, Maurya DS, Liu M, Xiao Q, Lu J, et al. Targeted delivery of mRNA with one-component ionizable amphiphilic janus dendrimers. J Am Chem Soc. 2021;143(43):17975–82.10.1021/jacs.1c09585 ↗
84. Ren S, Guo L, Wang C, Ru J, Yang Y, Wang Y, et al. Construction of an effective delivery system for DNA vaccines using biodegradable polylactic acid based microspheres. J Biomed Nanotechnol. 2021;17(5):971–80.10.1166/jbn.2021.3081 ↗
85. Stephens LM, Ross KA, Waldstein KA, Legge KL, McLellan JS, Narasimhan B, et al. Prefusion F–based polyanhydride nanovaccine induces both humoral and cell-mediated immunity resulting in long-lasting protection against respiratory syncytial virus. J Immunol. 2021;206(9):2122–34.10.4049/jimmunol.2100018 ↗
86. Klimek L, Novak N, Cabanillas B, Jutel M, Bousquet J, Akdis CA. Allergenic components of the mRNA‐1273 vaccine for COVID‐19: Possible involvement of polyethylene glycol and IgG‐mediated complement activation. Allergy. 2021;76(11):3307–13.10.1111/all.14794 ↗
87. Guo S, Fu D, Utupova A, Sun D, Zhou M, Jin Z, et al. Applications of polymer-based nanoparticles in vaccine field. Nanotechnol Rev. 2019;8(1):143–55.10.1515/ntrev-2019-0014 ↗
88. Hess KL, Medintz IL, Jewell CM. Designing inorganic nanomaterials for vaccines and immunotherapies. Nano Today. 2019;27:73–98.10.1016/j.nantod.2019.04.005 ↗
89. Zhou Q, Zhang Y, Du J, Li Y, Zhou Y, Fu Q, et al. Different-sized gold nanoparticle activator/antigen increases dendritic cells accumulation in liver-draining lymph nodes and CD8 + T cell responses. ACS Nano. 2016;10(2):2678–92.10.1021/acsnano.5b07716 ↗
90. Hu Z, Song B, Xu L, Zhong Y, Peng F, Ji X, et al. Aqueous synthesized quantum dots interfere with the NF-κB pathway and confer anti-tumor, anti-viral and anti-inflammatory effects. Biomaterials. 2016;108:187–96.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.08.047 ↗
91. Versiani AF, Astigarraga RG, Rocha ES, Barboza APM, Kroon EG, Rachid MA, et al. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes functionalized with recombinant Dengue virus 3 envelope proteins induce significant and specific immune responses in mice. J Nanobiotechnol. 2017;15(1):1–13.10.1186/s12951-017-0259-4 ↗
92. Pescatori M, Bedognetti D, Venturelli E, Ménard-Moyon C, Bernardini C, Muresu E, et al. Functionalized carbon nanotubes as immunomodulator systems. Biomaterials. 2013;34(18):4395–403.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.02.052 ↗
93. Qiao L, Chen M, Li S, Hu J, Gong C, Zhang Z, et al. A peptide-based subunit candidate vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 delivered by biodegradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles induced high humoral and cellular immunity in mice. Biomater Sci. 2021;9(21):7287–96.10.1039/D1BM01060C ↗
94. Motamedi‐sedeh F, Saboorizadeh A, Khalili I, Sharbatdaran M, Wijewardana V, Arbabi A. Carboxymethyl chitosan bounded iron oxide nanoparticles and gamma‐irradiated avian influenza subtype H9N2 vaccine to development of immunity on mouse and chicken. Vet Med Sci. 2021;8(2):626–34.10.1002/vms3.680 ↗
95. Orecchioni M, Bedognetti D, Newman L, Fuoco C, Spada F, Hendrickx W, et al. Single-cell mass cytometry and transcriptome profiling reveal the impact of graphene on human immune cells. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1):1–14.10.1038/s41467-017-01015-3 ↗
96. Xu L, Xiang J, Liu Y, Xu J, Luo Y, Feng L, et al. Functionalized graphene oxide serves as a novel vaccine nano-adjuvant for robust stimulation of cellular immunity. Nanoscale. 2016;8(6):3785–95.10.1039/C5NR09208F ↗
97. Bilyy R, Pagneux Q, François N, Bila G, Grytsko R, Lebedin Y, et al. Rapid generation of coronaviral immunity using recombinant peptide modified nanodiamonds. Pathogens. 2021;10(7):861.10.3390/pathogens10070861 ↗
98. Cao W, He L, Cao W, Huang X, Jia K, Dai J. Recent progress of graphene oxide as a potential vaccine carrier and adjuvant. Acta biomaterialia. 2020;112:14–28.10.1016/j.actbio.2020.06.009 ↗
99. Bakkar MR, Faraag AHI, Soliman ER, Fouda MS, Sarguos AMM, McLean GR, et al. Rhamnolipids nano-micelles as a potential hand sanitizer. Antibiotics. 2021;10(7):751.10.3390/antibiotics10070751 ↗
100. Monge FA, Jagadesan P, Bondu V, Donabedian PL, Ista L, Chi EY, et al. Highly effective inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by conjugated polymers and oligomers. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(50):55688–95.10.1021/acsami.0c17445 ↗