Understanding electrocatalysis at non-equilibrium steady states

Electrocatalysis has traditionally relied on static reaction conditions, in which catalyst performance is determined by equilibrium surface states. However, many catalytic processes in Nature are inherently dynamic. Pulse-driven electrocatalysis (PE) offers temporal control over electrode potential, allowing real-time adjustments to adsorbate energetics, charge distribution, and selectivity. This perspective shows how voltage pulses can modulate the catalytic interface under dynamic conditions, alter mechanistic pathways, favor transient intermediate states, reorganize the electric double layer (EDL), and steer reaction networks beyond steady-state limits. It covers the physical chemistry principles behind PE processes using pivotal multistep electrocatalytic reactions. Finally, future directions involving artificial intelligence to develop efficient self-optimizing electrocatalytic systems are elegantly discussed.