Advancements in two-dimensional nanomaterial-based sensing of antibiotics in environmental and biological samples

The pervasive use of antibiotics across healthcare, agriculture, and animal husbandry has led to their persistent presence in various environmental matrices, especially water bodies. Unregulated consumption and improper disposal practices contribute significantly to antibiotic contamination, raising global concerns regarding public health, ecosystem disruption, and the rapid emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Conventional detection techniques, including chromatography, spectroscopy, and immunoassays offer high sensitivity but are typically limited by their cost, complexity, and inaccessibility outside laboratory settings. As a result, there is a pressing need for point-of-care (POC) devices that are portable, cost-effective, and capable of accurately monitoring antibiotic residues in environmental and food samples. Among various detection technologies, electrochemical nanosensors, especially those leveraging two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D-NMs), have emerged as promising alternatives due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, exceptional electron mobility, and tunable surface functionalities. This review comprehensively discusses the development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on 2D-NMs, such as graphene oxide (GO), MXenes, layered double hydroxides (LDHs), and boron nitrides (BN) for antibiotic detection. It emphasizes performance metrics including limit of detection (LOD), linear range, response time, reproducibility, and operational feasibility. Furthermore, it explores the integration of 2D-NMs with emerging technologies, including microfluidics, screen-printed electrodes, laser-induced sensors, and AI for next-generation POC platforms. This review also highlights existing gaps and future directions for designing superior 2D-NM-based sensing systems aimed at combating antibiotic pollution and safeguarding public health.