Engineering Smart Composite Hydrogels for Wearable Disease Monitoring
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Growing health awareness triggers the public’s concern about health problems. People want a timely and comprehensive picture of their condition without frequent trips to the hospital for costly and cumbersome general check-ups. The wearable technique provides a continuous measurement method for health monitoring by tracking a person’s physiological data and analyzing it locally or remotely. During the health monitoring process, different kinds of sensors convert physiological signals into electrical or optical signals that can be recorded and transmitted, consequently playing a crucial role in wearable techniques. Wearable application scenarios usually require sensors to possess excellent flexibility and stretchability. Thus, designing flexible and stretchable sensors with reliable performance is the key to wearable technology. Smart composite hydrogels, which have tunable electrical properties, mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and multi-stimulus sensitivity, are one of the best sensitive materials for wearable health monitoring. This review summarizes the common synthetic and performance optimization strategies of smart composite hydrogels and focuses on the current application of smart composite hydrogels in the field of wearable health monitoring.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials · Conducting polymers and applications · Muscle activation and electromyography studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. M. Van den Akker, F. Buntinx, J.F. Metsemakers, S. Roos, J.A. Knottnerus, Multimorbidity in general practice: prevalence, incidence, and determinants of co-occurring chronic and recurrent diseases. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 51(5), 367–375 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-4356(97)00306-510.1016/S0895-4356(97)00306-5 ↗
2. K. Strong, C. Mathers, S. Leeder, R. Beaglehole, Preventing chronic diseases: how many lives can we save? Lancet 366(9496), 1578–1582 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67341-210.1016/S0140-6736(05)67341-2 ↗
3. J.C. Yang, J. Mun, S.Y. Kwon, S. Park, Z. Bao et al., Electronic skin: recent progress and future prospects for skin-attachable devices for health monitoring, robotics, and prosthetics. Adv. Mater. 31(48), 1904765 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20190476510.1002/adma.201904765 ↗
4. Y. Gao, L. Yu, J.C. Yeo, C.T. Lim, Flexible hybrid sensors for health monitoring: materials and mechanisms to render wearability. Adv. Mater. 32(15), 1902133 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20190213310.1002/adma.201902133 ↗
5. F. Han, T. Wang, G. Liu, H. Liu, X. Xie et al., Materials with tunable optical properties for wearable epidermal sensing in health monitoring. Adv. Mater. 34(26), 2109055 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20210905510.1002/adma.202109055 ↗
6. Y. Cheng, K. Wang, H. Xu, T. Li, Q. Jin et al., Recent developments in sensors for wearable device applications. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 413(24), 6037–6057 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-021-03602-210.1007/s00216-021-03602-2 ↗
7. S. Nasiri, M.R. Khosravani, Progress and challenges in fabrication of wearable sensors for health monitoring. Sens. Actuat. A: Phys. 312, 112105 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2020.11210510.1016/j.sna.2020.112105 ↗
8. T. Yang, D. Xie, Z. Li, H. Zhu, Recent advances in wearable tactile sensors: materials, sensing mechanisms, and device performance. Mater. Sci. Engin. R: Rep. 115, 1–37 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2017.02.00110.1016/j.mser.2017.02.001 ↗
9. L. Wen, F. Li, H.M. Cheng, Carbon nanotubes and graphene for flexible electrochemical energy storage: from materials to devices. Adv. Mater. 28(22), 4306–4337 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20150422510.1002/adma.201504225 ↗
10. A. Chortos, J. Liu, Z. Bao, Pursuing prosthetic electronic skin. Nat. Mater. 15(9), 937–950 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat467110.1038/nmat4671 ↗
11. T. Sekitani, Y. Noguchi, K. Hata, T. Fukushima, T. Aida et al., A rubberlike stretchable active matrix using elastic conductors. Science 321(5895), 1468–1472 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.116030910.1126/science.1160309 ↗
12. J-S. Noh, Conductive elastomers for stretchable electronics, sensors and energy harvesters. Polymers 8(4), 123 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym804012310.3390/polym8040123 ↗
13. F. Han, T. Armstrong, A. Andres-Arroyo, D. Bennett, A. Soeriyadi et al., Optical tweezers-based characterisation of gold core–satellite plasmonic nano-assemblies incorporating thermo-responsive polymers. Nanoscale 12(3), 1680–1687 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NR07891F10.1039/C9NR07891F ↗
14. L. Hu, Y. Wan, Q. Zhang, M.J. Serpe, Harnessing the power of stimuli-responsive polymers for actuation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30(2), 1903471 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20190347110.1002/adfm.201903471 ↗
15. F. Han, A.H. Soeriyadi, S.R.C. Vivekchand, J.J. Gooding, Simple method for tuning the optical properties of thermoresponsive plasmonic nanogels. ACS Macro Lett. 5(5), 626–630 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.6b0022210.1021/acsmacrolett.6b00222 ↗
16. L. Hu, Q. Zhang, X. Li, M.J. Serpe, Stimuli-responsive polymers for sensing and actuation. Mater. Horiz. 6(9), 1774–1793 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/C9MH00490D10.1039/C9MH00490D ↗
17. C. Won, C. Kwon, K. Park, J. Seo, T. Lee, Electronic drugs: spatial and temporal medical treatment of human diseases. Adv. Mater. 33(47), 2005930 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20200593010.1002/adma.202005930 ↗
18. G. Chen, W. Tang, X. Wang, X. Zhao, C. Chen et al., Applications of hydrogels with special physical properties in biomedicine. Polymers 11(9), 1420 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1109142010.3390/polym11091420 ↗
19. F. Liu, X. Liu, H. Gu, Multi-network poly (β-cyclodextrin)/PVA/gelatin/carbon nanotubes composite hydrogels constructed by multiple dynamic crosslinking as flexible electronic devices. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 307(3), 2100724 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.20210072410.1002/mame.202100724 ↗
20. D. Xu, J. Huang, D. Zhao, B. Ding, L. Zhang et al., High-flexibility, high-toughness double-cross-linked chitin hydrogels by sequential chemical and physical cross-linkings. Adv. Mater. 28(28), 5844–5849 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20160044810.1002/adma.201600448 ↗
21. Y.S. Zhang, A. Khademhosseini, Advances in engineering hydrogels. Science 356(6337), 500 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf362710.1126/science.aaf3627 ↗
22. J. Wu, S. Han, T. Yang, Z. Li, Z. Wu et al., Highly stretchable and transparent thermistor based on self-healing double network hydrogel. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(22), 19097–19105 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b0352410.1021/acsami.8b03524 ↗
23. J. Wu, Z. Wu, S. Han, B.-R. Yang, X. Gui et al., Extremely deformable, transparent, and high-performance gas sensor based on ionic conductive hydrogel. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11(2), 2364–2373 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b1743710.1021/acsami.8b17437 ↗
24. J. Wu, Z. Wu, H. Xu, Q. Wu, C. Liu et al., An intrinsically stretchable humidity sensor based on anti-drying, self-healing and transparent organohydrogels. Mater. Horiz. 6(3), 595–603 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/C8MH01160E10.1039/C8MH01160E ↗
25. Z. Wu, X. Yang, J. Wu, Conductive hydrogel- and organohydrogel-based stretchable sensors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(2), 2128–2144 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c2184110.1021/acsami.0c21841 ↗
26. Z. Wu, H. Ding, K. Tao, Y. Wei, X. Gui et al., Ultrasensitive, stretchable, and fast-response temperature sensors based on hydrogel films for wearable applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(18), 21854–21864 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c0529110.1021/acsami.1c05291 ↗
27. X. Sun, Z. Qin, L. Ye, H. Zhang, Q. Yu et al., Carbon nanotubes reinforced hydrogel as flexible strain sensor with high stretchability and mechanically toughness. Chem. Eng. J. 382, 122832 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122832Get10.1016/j.cej.2019.122832Get ↗
28. S. Liu, L. Li, Ultrastretchable and self-healing double-network hydrogel for 3D printing and strain sensor. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9(31), 26429–26437 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b0744510.1021/acsami.7b07445 ↗
29. X. Li, L. Jin, A. Ni, L. Zhang, L. He et al., Tough and antifreezing MXene@ Au hydrogel for low-temperature trimethylamine gas sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(26), 30182–30191 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c0674910.1021/acsami.2c06749 ↗
30. I.Y. Jung, J.S. Kim, B.R. Choi, K. Lee, H. Lee, Hydrogel based biosensors for in vitro diagnostics of biochemicals, proteins, and genes. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 6(12), 1601475 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20160147510.1002/adhm.201601475 ↗
31. B. Mirani, E. Pagan, B. Currie, M.A. Siddiqui, R. Hosseinzadeh et al., An advanced multifunctional hydrogel-based dressing for wound monitoring and drug delivery. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 6(19), 1700718 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20170071810.1002/adhm.201700718 ↗
32. Q. Ding, Z. Zhou, H. Wang, Z. Wu, K. Tao et al., Self-healable, recyclable, ultrastretchable, and high-performance NO2 sensors based on an organohydrogel for room and sub-zero temperature and wireless operation. SmartMat 4(1), e1141 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/smm2.114110.1002/smm2.1141 ↗
33. Q. Ding, H. Wang, Z. Zhou, Z. Wu, K. Tao et al., Stretchable, self-healable, and breathable biomimetic iontronics with superior humidity-sensing performance for wireless respiration monitoring. SmartMat 4(2), e1147 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/smm2.114710.1002/smm2.1147 ↗
34. L. Wang, T. Xu, C. Fan, X. Zhang, Wearable strain sensor for real-time sweat volume monitoring. IScience 24(1), 102028 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.10202810.1016/j.isci.2020.102028 ↗
35. R. Zhong, Q. Tang, S. Wang, H. Zhang, F. Zhang et al., Self-assembly of enzyme-like nanofibrous G-molecular hydrogel for printed flexible electrochemical sensors. Adv. Mater. 30(12), 1706887 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20170688710.1002/adma.201706887 ↗
36. A. Choe, J. Yeom, R. Shanker, M.P. Kim, S. Kang et al., Stretchable and wearable colorimetric patches based on thermoresponsive plasmonic microgels embedded in a hydrogel film. NPG Asia Mater. 10(9), 912–922 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41427-018-0086-610.1038/s41427-018-0086-6 ↗
37. H.-Y. Leu, N. Farhoudi, C.F. Reiche, J. Körner, S. Mohanty et al., Low-cost microfluidic sensors with smart hydrogel patterned arrays using electronic resistive channel sensing for readout. Gels 4(4), 84 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/gels404008410.3390/gels4040084 ↗
38. F. Mo, Y. Huang, Q. Li, Z. Wang, R. Jiang et al., A highly stable and durable capacitive strain sensor based on dynamically super-tough hydro/organo-gels. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(28), 2010830 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20201083010.1002/adfm.202010830 ↗
39. F. Han, X. Xie, T. Wang, C. Cao, J. Li et al., Wearable hydrogel-based epidermal sensor with thermal compatibility and long term stability for smart colorimetric multi-signals monitoring. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 12(3), 2201730 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20220173010.1002/adhm.202201730 ↗
40. Y. Shao, H. Jia, T. Cao, D. Liu, Supramolecular hydrogels based on DNA self-assembly. Acc. Chem. Res. 50(4), 659–668 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.6b0052410.1021/acs.accounts.6b00524 ↗
41. L. Zhang, W. Lee, X. Li, Y. Jiang, N.X. Fang et al., 3D direct printing of mechanical and biocompatible hydrogel meta-structures. Bioact. Mater. 10, 48–55 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.08.01510.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.08.015 ↗
42. Y. Ko, D. Kim, G. Kwon, J. You, High-performance resistive pressure sensor based on elastic composite hydrogel of silver nanowires and poly (ethylene glycol). Micromachines 9(9), 438 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/mi909043810.3390/mi9090438 ↗
43. Y. Ichimura, T. Kuritsubo, K. Nagamine, A. Nomura, I. Shitanda et al., A fully screen-printed potentiometric chloride ion sensor employing a hydrogel-based touchpad for simple and non-invasive daily electrolyte analysis. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 413(7), 1883–1891 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-021-03156-310.1007/s00216-021-03156-3 ↗
44. G.J. Kim, K.O. Kim, Novel glucose-responsive of the transparent nanofiber hydrogel patches as a wearable biosensor via electrospinning. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 18858 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75906-910.1038/s41598-020-75906-9 ↗
45. Y. Miao, M. Xu, J. Yu, L. Zhang, Conductive cold-resistant and elastic hydrogel: a potential bionic skin for human-machine interaction control over artificial limbs. Sens. Actuat. B 327, 128916 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2020.12891610.1016/j.snb.2020.128916 ↗
46. K. Kaniewska, M. Karbarz, E. Katz, Nanocomposite hydrogel films and coatings–Features and applications. Appl. Mater. Today 20, 100776 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2020.10077610.1016/j.apmt.2020.100776 ↗
47. Y. Niu, H. Liu, R. He, Z. Li, H. Ren et al., The new generation of soft and wearable electronics for health monitoring in varying environment: From normal to extreme conditions. Mater. Today 41, 219–242 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2020.10.00410.1016/j.mattod.2020.10.004 ↗
48. X. Du, J. Zhai, X. Li, Y. Zhang, N. Li et al., Hydrogel-based optical ion sensors: principles and challenges for point-of-care testing and environmental monitoring. ACS Sens. 6(6), 1990–2001 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.1c0075610.1021/acssensors.1c00756 ↗
49. L. Wang, J. Wang, C. Fan, T. Xu, X. Zhang, Skin-like hydrogel-elastomer based electrochemical device for comfortable wearable biofluid monitoring. Chem. Eng. J. 455, 140609 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.14060910.1016/j.cej.2022.140609 ↗
50. L. Wang, T. Xu, X. Zhang, Multifunctional conductive hydrogel-based flexible wearable sensors. TrAC Trends in Anal. Chem. 134, 116130 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.11613010.1016/j.trac.2020.116130 ↗
51. L-H. Fu, C. Qi, M-G. Ma, P. Wan, Multifunctional cellulose-based hydrogels for biomedical applications. J. Mater. Chem. B 7(10), 1541–1562 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TB02331J10.1039/C8TB02331J ↗
52. Z. Deng, R. Yu, B. Guo, Stimuli-responsive conductive hydrogels: design, properties, and applications. Mater. Chem. Front. 5(5), 2092–2123 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/D0QM00868K10.1039/D0QM00868K ↗
53. Z. Wang, Y. Liu, Z. Wang, X. Huang, W. Huang, Hydrogel-based composites: unlimited platforms for biosensors and diagnostics. VIEW 2(6), 20200165 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/VIW.2020016510.1002/VIW.20200165 ↗
54. J. Maitra, V.K. Shukla, Cross-linking in hydrogels-a review. Am. J. Polym. Sci. 4(2), 25–31 (2014). https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ajps.20140402.0110.5923/j.ajps.20140402.01 ↗
55. Z.L. Wu, J.P. Gong, Hydrogels with self-assembling ordered structures and their functions. NPG Asia Mater. 3(6), 57–64 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/asiamat.2010.20010.1038/asiamat.2010.200 ↗
56. G. Song, Z. Zhao, X. Peng, C. He, R. Weiss et al., Rheological behavior of tough PVP-in situ-PAAm hydrogels physically cross-linked by cooperative hydrogen bonding. Macromolecules 49(21), 8265–8273 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.6b0144810.1021/acs.macromol.6b01448 ↗
57. Y-N. Chen, C. Jiao, Y. Zhao, J. Zhang, H. Wang, Self-assembled polyvinyl alcohol–tannic acid hydrogels with diverse microstructures and good mechanical properties. ACS Omega 3(9), 11788–11795 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.8b0204110.1021/acsomega.8b02041 ↗
58. W. Wang, Y. Zhang, W. Liu, Bioinspired fabrication of high strength hydrogels from non-covalent interactions. Prog. Polym. Sci. 71, 1–25 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.04.00110.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.04.001 ↗
59. M. Djabourov, J. Leblond, P. Papon, Gelation of aqueous gelatin solutions I: structural investigation. J. Phys. 49(2), 319–332 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1051/jphys:0198800490203190010.1051/jphys:01988004902031900 ↗
60. M. Djabourov, J. Leblond, P. Papon, Gelation of aqueous gelatin solutions: II: rheology of the sol-gel transition. J. Phys. 49(2), 333–343 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1051/jphys:0198800490203330010.1051/jphys:01988004902033300 ↗
61. L. Gasperini, J.F. Mano, R.L. Reis, Natural polymers for the microencapsulation of cells. J. Royal Soc. Interface 11(100), 20140817 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.081710.1098/rsif.2014.0817 ↗
62. M.A. Ward, T.K. Georgiou, Thermoresponsive polymers for biomedical applications. Polymers 3(3), 1215–1242 (2011). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym303121510.3390/polym3031215 ↗
63. B.L. Ekerdt, C.M. Fuentes, Y. Lei, M.M. Adil, A. Ramasubramanian et al., Thermoreversible hyaluronic acid-PNIPAAm hydrogel systems for 3D stem cell culture. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 7(12), 1800225 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20180022510.1002/adhm.201800225 ↗
64. J. Seuring, F.M. Bayer, K. Huber, S. Agarwal, Upper critical solution temperature of poly(N-acryloyl glycinamide) in water: a concealed property. Macromolecules 45(1), 374–384 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/ma202059t10.1021/ma202059t ↗
65. F. Puza, Y. Zheng, L. Han, L. Xue, J. Cui, Physical entanglement hydrogels: ultrahigh water content but good toughness and stretchability. Polym. Chem. 11(13), 2339–2345 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/D0PY00294A10.1039/D0PY00294A ↗
66. C. Shao, H. Chang, M. Wang, F. Xu, J. Yang, High-strength, tough, and self-healing nanocomposite physical hydrogels based on the synergistic effects of dynamic hydrogen bond and dual coordination bonds. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9(34), 28305–28318 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b0961410.1021/acsami.7b09614 ↗
67. L.E.R. O’Leary, J.A. Fallas, E.L. Bakota, M.K. Kang, J.D. Hartgerink, Multi-hierarchical self-assembly of a collagen mimetic peptide from triple helix to nanofibre and hydrogel. Nat. Chem. 3(10), 821–828 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.112310.1038/nchem.1123 ↗
68. S. Mane, S. Ponrathnam, N. Chavan, Effect of chemical cross-linking on properties of polymer microbeads: a review. Can. Chem. Trans. 3(4), 473–485 (2015). https://doi.org/10.13179/canchemtrans.2015.03.04.024510.13179/canchemtrans.2015.03.04.0245 ↗
69. P. Song, H. Wang, High-performance polymeric materials through hydrogen-bond cross-linking. Adv. Mater. 32(18), 1901244 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20190124410.1002/adma.201901244 ↗
70. L. Guo, W.-B. Ma, Y. Wang, X.-Z. Song, J. Ma et al., A chemically crosslinked hydrogel electrolyte based all-in-one flexible supercapacitor with superior performance. J. Alloys Compd. 843, 155895 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.15589510.1016/j.jallcom.2020.155895 ↗
71. M.H. Kim, W.H. Park, Chemically cross-linked silk fibroin hydrogel with enhanced elastic properties, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Int. J. Nanomed. 11, 2967 (2016). https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S10646710.2147/IJN.S106467 ↗
72. M.L. Oyen, Mechanical characterisation of hydrogel materials. Int. Mater. Rev. 59(1), 44–59 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1179/1743280413Y.000000002210.1179/1743280413Y.0000000022 ↗
73. S. Summonte, G.F. Racaniello, A. Lopedota, N. Denora, A. Bernkop-Schnürch, Thiolated polymeric hydrogels for biomedical application: cross-linking mechanisms. J. Control. Release 330, 470–482 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.12.03710.1016/j.jconrel.2020.12.037 ↗
74. G. Rajesh Krishnan, C. Cheah, D. Sarkar, Hybrid cross-linking characteristics of hydrogel control stem cell fate. Macromol. Biosci. 15(6), 747–755 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.20140053510.1002/mabi.201400535 ↗
75. M. Hu, X. Gu, Y. Hu, T. Wang, J. Huang et al., Low chemically cross-linked PAM/C-dot hydrogel with robustness and superstretchability in both as-prepared and swelling equilibrium states. Macromolecules 49(8), 3174–3183 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.5b0235210.1021/acs.macromol.5b02352 ↗
76. X. Zhang, R. Zhang, S. Wu, Y. Sun, H. Yang et al., Physically and chemically dual-crosslinked hydrogels with superior mechanical properties and self-healing behavior. New J. Chem. 44(23), 9903–9911 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/D0NJ00348D10.1039/D0NJ00348D ↗
77. K. Haraguchi, T. Takehisa, M. Ebato, Control of cell cultivation and cell sheet detachment on the surface of polymer/clay nanocomposite hydrogels. Biomacromol 7(11), 3267–3275 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1021/bm060549b10.1021/bm060549b ↗
78. Y. Yang, Y. Yang, Y. Cao, X. Wang, Y. Chen et al., Anti-freezing, resilient and tough hydrogels for sensitive and large-range strain and pressure sensors. Chem. Eng. J. 403, 126431 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.12643110.1016/j.cej.2020.126431 ↗
79. W.R. Illeperuma, J.-Y. Sun, Z. Suo, J.J. Vlassak, Fiber-reinforced tough hydrogels. Extreme Mech. Lett. 1, 90–96 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eml.2014.11.00110.1016/j.eml.2014.11.001 ↗
80. K. Haraguchi, T. Takehisa, Nanocomposite hydrogels: A unique organic–inorganic network structure with extraordinary mechanical, optical, and swelling/de-swelling properties. Adv. Mater. 14(16), 1120–1124 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-4095(20020816)14:16%3c1120::AID-ADMA1120%3e3.0.CO;2-910.1002/1521-4095(20020816)14:16<1120::AID-ADMA1120>3.0.CO;2-9 ↗
81. C. Norioka, Y. Inamoto, C. Hajime, A. Kawamura, T. Miyata, A universal method to easily design tough and stretchable hydrogels. NPG Asia Mater. 13(1), 1–10 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41427-021-00302-210.1038/s41427-021-00302-2 ↗
82. M-M. Song, Y-M. Wang, B. Wang, X-Y. Liang, Z-Y. Chang et al., Super tough, ultrastretchable hydrogel with multistimuli responsiveness. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(17), 15021–15029 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b0141010.1021/acsami.8b01410 ↗
83. T. Nakajima, Generalization of the sacrificial bond principle for gel and elastomer toughening. Polym. J. 49(6), 477–485 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/pj.2017.1210.1038/pj.2017.12 ↗
84. J.P. Gong, Why are double network hydrogels so tough? Soft Matter 6(12), 2583–2590 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1039/B924290B10.1039/B924290B ↗
85. H. Sun, K. Zhou, Y. Yu, X. Yue, K. Dai et al., Highly stretchable, transparent, and bio-friendly strain sensor based on self-recovery ionic-covalent hydrogels for human motion monitoring. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 304(10), 1900227 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.20190022710.1002/mame.201900227 ↗
86. K. Pan, S. Peng, Y. Chu, K. Liang, C.H. Wang et al., Highly sensitive, stretchable and durable strain sensors based on conductive double-network polymer hydrogels. J. Polym. Sci. 58(21), 3069–3081 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.2020056710.1002/pol.20200567 ↗
87. A. Bin Imran, K. Esaki, H. Gotoh, T. Seki, K. Ito et al., Extremely stretchable thermosensitive hydrogels by introducing slide-ring polyrotaxane cross-linkers and ionic groups into the polymer network. Nat. Commun. 5(1), 5124 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms612410.1038/ncomms6124 ↗
88. Q. Rong, W. Lei, M. Liu, Conductive hydrogels as smart materials for flexible electronic devices. Chem. Eur. J. 24(64), 16930–16943 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.20180130210.1002/chem.201801302 ↗
89. Y. Shi, L. Peng, Y. Ding, Y. Zhao, G. Yu, Nanostructured conductive polymers for advanced energy storage. Chem. Soc. Rev. 44(19), 6684–6696 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CS00362H10.1039/C5CS00362H ↗
90. H. Deng, L. Lin, M. Ji, S. Zhang, M. Yang et al., Progress on the morphological control of conductive network in conductive polymer composites and the use as electroactive multifunctional materials. Prog. Polym. Sci. 39(4), 627–655 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.07.00710.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.07.007 ↗
91. F. Zhao, Y. Shi, L. Pan, G. Yu, Multifunctional nanostructured conductive polymer gels: synthesis, properties, and applications. Acc. Chem. Res. 50(7), 1734–1743 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.7b0019110.1021/acs.accounts.7b00191 ↗
92. Y.Y. Lee, H.Y. Kang, S.H. Gwon, G.M. Choi, S.M. Lim et al., A strain-insensitive stretchable electronic conductor: PEDOT: PSS/acrylamide organogels. Adv. Mater. 28(8), 1636–1643 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20150460610.1002/adma.201504606 ↗
93. C. Hu, Y. Zhang, X. Wang, L. Xing, L. Shi et al., Stable, strain-sensitive conductive hydrogel with antifreezing capability, remoldability, and reusability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(50), 44000–44010 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b1528710.1021/acsami.8b15287 ↗
94. G. Li, K. Huang, J. Deng, M. Guo, M. Cai et al., Highly conducting and stretchable double-network hydrogel for soft bioelectronics. Adv. Mater. 34(15), 2200261 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b1528710.1021/acsami.8b15287 ↗
95. B. Lu, H. Yuk, S. Lin, N. Jian, K. Qu et al., Pure PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. Nat. Commun. 10, 1043 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09003-510.1038/s41467-019-09003-5 ↗
96. Y. Liu, J. Liu, S. Chen, T. Lei, Y. Kim et al., Soft and elastic hydrogel-based microelectronics for localized low-voltage neuromodulation. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 3(1), 58–68 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-018-0335-610.1038/s41551-018-0335-6 ↗
97. Y. Peng, B. Yan, Y. Li, J. Lan, L. Shi et al., Antifreeze and moisturizing high conductivity PEDOT/PVA hydrogels for wearable motion sensor. J. Mater. Sci. 55(3), 1280–1291 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04101-710.1007/s10853-019-04101-7 ↗
98. Y. Zhao, B. Zhang, B. Yao, Y. Qiu, Z. Peng et al., Hierarchically structured stretchable conductive hydrogels for high-performance wearable strain sensors and supercapacitors. Matter 3(4), 1196–1210 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2020.08.02410.1016/j.matt.2020.08.024 ↗
99. J. Hur, K. Im, S.W. Kim, J. Kim, D.-Y. Chung et al., Polypyrrole/agarose-based electronically conductive and reversibly restorable hydrogel. ACS Nano 8(10), 10066–10076 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/nn502704g10.1021/nn502704g ↗
100. Z. Wang, J. Chen, Y. Cong, H. Zhang, T. Xu et al., Ultrastretchable strain sensors and arrays with high sensitivity and linearity based on super tough conductive hydrogels. Chem. Mater. 30(21), 8062–8069 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b0399910.1021/acs.chemmater.8b03999 ↗