3D nanocomposite scaffold of TiO₂-nanotube-incorporated carrageenan for wound healing

Three-dimensional (3D) nanocomposite scaffold is an important material for biomedical application owing to their compatibility and effectiveness compared with other types of nanocomposites. In this research, a unique 3D nanocomposite scaffold based on carrageenan biopolymer incorporating titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanotubes (TiO₂NTs) was successfully developed. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction were employed to investigate the intermolecular interaction and phase structure of the fabricated 3D TiO₂NT-incorporated carrageenan (TiO₂NT/CG) nanocomposite scaffold. The ability of 3D TiO₂NT/CG nanocomposite scaffold for wound healing was tested in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro study on 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells demonstrated that the number of cells increased up to 190 000 per well. Meanwhile, in vivo studies on Sprague Dawley rat exhibited that a 100% cure rate of wounds was observed after 14 days. These are attributed to the presence of ∼10 nm TiO₂NTs that are homogeneously distributed onto the scaffold, as proven by scanning electron microscopy. The TiO₂NTs promote wound healing by generating reactive oxygen species to induce the fibroblast growth factor and for the formation of a new extracellular matrix. The interconnected porous structure and rough surface of the 3D titanium dioxide/CG nanocomposite scaffold also support cell proliferation to expedite wound healing, thus offering a good candidate for wound-dressing application.