Next-generation borophene nanostructures for dual-domain sensing: from structural optimisation to biomedical and environmental applications

Borophene, a novel two-dimensional (2D) material composed of atomically thin boron sheets, has emerged as a formidable contender to graphene due to its unique structural and electronic attributes. Borophene-derived nanosheets, quantum dots and nanocomposites are revolutionising advanced sensing technologies by integrating high-performance electronic properties with biologically and environmentally relevant detection capabilities. Their exceptional charge carrier mobility, tunable bandgap, and intrinsic catalytic activity endow them with remarkable plasmonic, optical, and enzyme-mimetic properties, enabling ultra-sensitive and selective detection of biomolecules and pollutants. This review critically examines the synthesis, structural evolution, and functional tuning of borophene-derived nanostructures (nanosheets, quantum dots and nanocomposites), with a focus on surface engineering strategies, such as doping, functionalisation, and hybridisation, that enhance sensing performance. The mechanisms underlying fluorescence, colorimetric, and electrochemical sensing modalities are explored, along with the emerging role of borophene-based nanozymes in catalytic biosensing. A comparative evaluation of borophene sheets, quantum dots and nanocomposites is presented, highlighting their advantages over conventional 2D materials. Finally, current challenges and future perspectives are discussed, marking the transformative potential of borophene-based nanostructures in next-generation multifunctional sensing technologies.