Energy density optimization in laser-based powder bed fusion of nano-modified PA12 powder feedstocks
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Additive manufacturing (AM) by powder bed fusion using a laser beam (PBF-LB) is often considered as the process of choice for industrial applications. Small changes in process parameters and intrinsic or extrinsic material parameters can significantly affect the final as-built part properties in this highly complex AM process. Choosing a machine configuration with optimal process parameters can be time-consuming, especially when new powders, i.e., nano-modified feedstocks or batches, are used. Even if a set of parameters works for one PBF-LB machine, the same parameters may produce unsatisfactory results on another machine model. Dimensionless parameters can be beneficial in simplifying complex phenomena. In this study, a semi-analytical approach based on printing monolayers was semi-blind tested by five laboratories on different PBF-LB machines. Virgin polyamide 12 (PA12), silver, and carbon black nano-particle-modified PA12 powders were tested. Two dimensionless numbers were used to describe the process. The first number describes the energy conversion dimensionless. The second dimensionless number proposes a minimum energy input demand for full densification. Both numbers combine process parameters (e.g., laser power, scan speed) and material properties (latent heat and solid density), while energy conversion number is considered by experimental results (monolayer thickness). Results indicate how nanoparticles influence thermal conductivity and energy absorption. Suggested surface energy densities based on the dimensionless numbers were compared with mechanical properties. The prediction of the highest overall mechanical values (tensile strength and elongation at break) matched the best mechanical properties. The monolayer approach presents an experimental simple method for predicting suitable machine settings and narrowing the process window in an efficient and material-conserving way. Graphical abstract
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · Injection Molding Process and Properties
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (46)
Show source-provided references
1. Schmid M (2018) Laser Sintering with Plastics. Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co, KG, München10.1007/978-1-56990-684-2 ↗
2. Tan LJ, Zhu W, Zhou K (2020) Recent Progress on Polymer Materials for Additive Manufacturing. Adv Funct Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20200306210.1002/adfm.202003062 ↗
3. Kusoglu IM, Doñate-Buendía C, Barcikowski S, Gökce B (2021) Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Polymers: Quantitative Research Direction Indices. Materials (Basel Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1405116910.3390/ma14051169 ↗
4. Berretta S, Ghita O, Evans K, Anderson A, Newman C (2014) Size, shape and flow of powders for use in Selective Laser Sintering (SLS). In: Bártolo PJdS10.1201/b15961-11 ↗
5. (ed) High Value Manufacturing: Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Advanced Research and Rapid Prototyping, Leiria, Portugal, 1-5 October, 2013. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 49-54
6. Dechet MA, Gómez Bonilla JS, Lanzl L, Drummer D, Bück A, Schmidt J, Peukert W (2018) Spherical Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)-Polycarbonate (PC) Blend Particles by Mechanical Alloying and Thermal Rounding. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1012137310.3390/polym10121373 ↗
7. Dechet MA, Baumeister I, Schmidt J (2020) Development of Polyoxymethylene Particles via the Solution-Dissolution Process and Application to the Powder Bed Fusion of Polymers. Materials (Basel Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1307153510.3390/ma13071535 ↗
8. Dechet MA, Gómez Bonilla JS, Grünewald M, Popp K, Rudloff J, Lang M, Schmidt J (2021) A novel, precipitated polybutylene terephthalate feedstock material for powder bed fusion of polymers (PBF): Material development and initial PBF processability. Mater Des 197:109265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.10926510.1016/j.matdes.2020.109265 ↗
9. Kleijnen RG, Wegener K, Schmid M (2019) Impact of Flow Aid on the Flowability and Coalescence of Polymer Laser Sintering Powder. Conference Paper
10. Hupfeld T, Laumer T, Stichel T, Schuffenhauer T, Heberle J, Schmidt M, Barcikowski S, Gökce B (2018) A new approach to coat PA12 powders with laser-generated nanoparticles for selective laser sintering. Procedia CIRP 74:244–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.10310.1016/j.procir.2018.08.103 ↗
11. Hupfeld T, Sommereyns A, Schuffenhauer T, Zhuravlev E, Krebs M, Gann S, Keßler O, Schmidt M, Gökce B, Barcikowski S (2020) How colloidal surface additivation of polyamide 12 powders with well-dispersed silver nanoparticles influences the crystallization already at low 0.01 vol.%. Additive Manuf 36:101419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.10141910.1016/j.addma.2020.101419 ↗
12. Stratmann N, Willeke M, Leupold S, Schmidt M, Barcikowski S, Ziefuss AR (2024) Near-infrared surface sensitizing of PA12 to enable diode laser-based Powder Bed Fusion. Procedia CIRP 124:69–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2024.08.07310.1016/j.procir.2024.08.073 ↗
13. Caulfield B, McHugh PE, Lohfeld S (2007) Dependence of mechanical properties of polyamide components on build parameters in the SLS process. J Mater Process Technol 182(1–3):477–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.09.00710.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.09.007 ↗
14. Grünewald M, Popp K, Chehreh A, Gann S, Kusoglu IM, Barcikowski S, Nowicki A, Schuffenhauer T, Bastian M, Rudloff J (2024) Energy conversion aspects in laser powder bed fusion of nanoparticle supported PA12 powder feedstock. In: proceedings of the 38th international conference of the polymer processing society (PPS-38). AIP Publishing, p 18000110.1063/5.0204504 ↗
15. Phillips T, Fish S, Beaman J (2018) Development of an automated laser control system for improving temperature uniformity and controlling component strength in selective laser sintering. Addit Manuf 24:316–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.10.01610.1016/j.addma.2018.10.016 ↗
16. Lupi F, Pacini A, Lanzetta M (2023) Laser powder bed additive manufacturing: A review on the four drivers for an online control. J Manuf Process 103:413–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.08.02210.1016/j.jmapro.2023.08.022 ↗
17. Morano C, Pagnotta L (2023) Additive Manufactured Parts Produced Using Selective Laser Sintering Technology: Comparison between Porosity of Pure and Blended Polymers. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1522444610.3390/polym15224446 ↗
18. Morano C, Pagnotta L (2023) Additive manufactured parts produced by selective laser sintering technology: porosity formation mechanisms. J Polym Eng 43(6):537–555. https://doi.org/10.1515/polyeng-2023-002810.1515/polyeng-2023-0028 ↗
19. Morano C, Crocco MC, Formoso V, Pagnotta L (2023) Effect of induced plastic strain on the porosity of PA12 printed through selective laser sintering studied by X-ray computed micro-tomography. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 125(7–8):3229–3240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10791-210.1007/s00170-022-10791-2 ↗
20. Flores Ituarte I, Wiikinkoski O, Jansson A (2018) Additive Manufacturing of Polypropylene: A Screening Design of Experiment Using Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1012129310.3390/polym10121293 ↗
21. Mulinge Mwania F, Maringa M, van der Walt J (2022) Analytical and numerical modelling of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) of polymers – a review of the key areas of focus of the process. MATEC Web Conf 370:6001. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20223700600110.1051/matecconf/202237006001 ↗
22. Sommereyns A, Gann S, Schmidt J, Chehreh AB, Lüddecke A, Walther F, Gökce B, Barcikowski S, Schmidt M (2021) Quality over Quantity: How Different Dispersion Qualities of Minute Amounts of Nano-Additives Affect Material Properties in Powder Bed Fusion of Polyamide 12. Materials (Basel Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1418532210.3390/ma14185322 ↗
23. Wudy K, Lanzl L, Drummer D (2016) Selective Laser Sintering of Filled Polymer Systems: Bulk Properties and Laser Beam Material Interaction. Phys Procedia 83:991–1002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.10410.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.104 ↗
24. Pilipović A, Brajlih T, Drstvenšek I (2018) Influence of Processing Parameters on Tensile Properties of SLS Polymer Product. Polymers. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1011120810.3390/polym10111208 ↗
25. Rahman MM, Ahmed KA, Karim M, Hassan J, Roy R, Bustami B, Alam SMN, Younes H (2023) Optimization of Selective Laser Sintering Three-Dimensional Printing of Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomer: A Statistical Approach. JMMP 7(4):144. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp704014410.3390/jmmp7040144 ↗
26. Starr TL, Gornet TJ, Usher JS (2011) The effect of process conditions on mechanical properties of laser-sintered nylon. Rapid Prototyp J 17(6):418–423. https://doi.org/10.1108/1355254111118414310.1108/13552541111184143 ↗
27. Vasquez M, Haworth B, Hopkinson N (2013) Methods for quantifying the stable sintering region in laser sintered polyamide-12. Polym Eng Sci (Polymer Engineering & Science) 53(6):1230–1240. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.2338610.1002/pen.23386 ↗
28. Bierwisch C, Mohseni-Mofidi S, Dietemann B, Grünewald M, Rudloff J, Lang M (2021) Universal process diagrams for laser sintering of polymers. Mater Des 199:109432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.10943210.1016/j.matdes.2020.109432 ↗
29. Bierwisch C, Dietemann B, Grünewald M, Schlör C, Rudloff J (2024) Development and Validation of a One-Dimensional Finite Difference Simulation Scheme for Polymer Laser Powder Bed Fusion with Application to the Effect of the Inter Layer Time. Adv Eng Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.20240128510.1002/adem.202401285 ↗
30. Chatham CA, Bortner MJ, Johnson BN, Long TE, Williams CB (2021) Predicting mechanical property plateau in laser polymer powder bed fusion additive manufacturing via the critical coalescence ratio. Mater Des 201:109474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.10947410.1016/j.matdes.2021.109474 ↗
31. Grünewald M, Baumann S, Popp K, Lang M, Bastian M, Mohseni-Mofidi S, Bierwisch C, Rudloff J (2023) Analysis of the energy input during the sintering process of polyamide 12. In: proceedings of the 36th conference of the polymer processing society – PPS36. AIP Publishing, p 12000110.1063/5.0135798 ↗
32. Grünewald M, Popp K, Rudloff J, Lang M, Sommereyns A, Schmidt M, Mohseni-Mofidi S, Bierwisch C (2021) Experimental, numerical and analytical investigation of the polyamide 12 powder bed fusion with the aim of building dimensionless characteristic numbers. Mater Des 201:109470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.10947010.1016/j.matdes.2021.109470 ↗
33. Sommereyns A, Hupfeld T, Gann S, Wang T, Wu C, Zhuravlev E, Lüddecke A, Baumann S, Rudloff J, Lang M, Gökce B, Barcikowski S, Schmidt M (2021) Influence of sub-monolayer quantities of carbon nanoparticles on the melting and crystallization behavior of polyamide 12 powders for additive manufacturing. Mater Des 201:109487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.10948710.1016/j.matdes.2021.109487 ↗
34. Kusoglu IM, Ziefuss AR, Barcikowski S (2024) Booklet for Standard Operational Procedures of DFG SPP2122 Interlaboratory Study measuring the effect of nanoparticles on the entire PBF-LB process chain of AlSi10Mg and PA12. DuEPublico
35. Beitz S, Uerlich R, Bokelmann T, Diener A, Vietor T, Kwade A (2019) Influence of Powder Deposition on Powder Bed and Specimen Properties. Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 12(2):297. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1202029710.3390/ma12020297 ↗
36. Avrampos P, Vosniakos G-C (2022) A review of powder deposition in additive manufacturing by powder bed fusion. J Manuf Process 74:332–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.12.02110.1016/j.jmapro.2021.12.021 ↗
37. Vetterli M (2019) Powder Optimization for Laser Sintering: An Insight in Powder Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties, ETH Zurich
38. Xu Z, Freire L, Billon N, Zhang Y, Bouvard J-L (2023) Thermal behavior and morphology evolution of polyamide 12 in laser powder bed fusion process: Experimental characterization and numerical simulation. J Manuf Process 103:104–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.08.01510.1016/j.jmapro.2023.08.015 ↗
39. Jacob G, Donmez A, Slotwinski J, Moylan S (2016) Measurement of powder bed density in powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes. Meas Sci Technol 27(11):115601. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/27/11/11560110.1088/0957-0233/27/11/115601 ↗
40. Kozlovsky K, Schiltz J, Kreider T, Kumar M, Schmid S (2018) Mechanical Properties of Reused Nylon Feedstock for Powder-bed Additive Manufacturing in Orthopedics. Procedia Manuf 26:826–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2018.07.10310.1016/j.promfg.2018.07.103 ↗
41. Sindinger S-L, Kralovec C, Tasch D, Schagerl M (2020) Thickness dependent anisotropy of mechanical properties and inhomogeneous porosity characteristics in laser-sintered polyamide 12 specimens. Addit Manuf 33:101141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.10114110.1016/j.addma.2020.101141 ↗
42. Guo C, Xu Z, Zhou Y, Shi S, Li G, Lu H, Zhu Q, Ward RM (2021) Single-track investigation of IN738LC superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion: Track morphology, bead characteristics and part quality. J Mater Process Technol 290:117000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.11700010.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.117000 ↗
43. Chen J, Li M, Li K, Zhang W, Yang Z, Zhao C, Ma J, Liu W (2023) Cracking mechanisms in additively manufactured pure tungsten from printing single tracks, thin walls and cubes. Mater Des 234:112363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.11236310.1016/j.matdes.2023.112363 ↗
44. Hosseini E, Scheel P, Müller O, Molinaro R, Mishra S (2023) Single-track thermal analysis of laser powder bed fusion process: Parametric solution through physics-informed neural networks. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 410:116019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2023.11601910.1016/j.cma.2023.116019 ↗
45. Stoll T, Prudlik R, Birg M, Wudy K (2024) Influence of different beam shapes on melt pool geometry of single melt tracks on IN718. Prog Addit Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00775-x10.1007/s40964-024-00775-x ↗
46. Yeh H-P, Pan Z, Bayat M, Hattel JH (2024) A thermal fluid dynamic model for the melt region during the laser powder bed fusion of polyamide 11 (PA11). J Manuf Process 124:1422–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.07.00810.1016/j.jmapro.2024.07.008 ↗