Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a pure biopolymer with abundant sources. BC has been used in wound dressings, artificial blood vessels, bone tissue engineering, and other applications because of its microporosity, excellent water retention, thermal stability, and biocompatibility. Despite this, the mechanical qualities of dehydrated BC are poor, and its strength and toughness are insufficient for the application. The mechanical properties of BC are influenced by the three-dimensional (3D) nano-network structure, which includes porosity, pore diameter, and the ordered arrangement of fibers, among other factors. Essentially, the quantity and kind of cross-linking in the 3D network play a critical role in improving mechanical characteristics. Selection and modification of production strains, surface chemical modification, physical mixing with reinforcement, and improving the ordered arrangement of fibers are some of the tactics discussed in this review for improving the mechanical properties of BC. Various improvement methods and their effects on mechanical characteristics are addressed.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Cellulose Research Studies · Electrospun Nanofibers in Biomedical Applications · Pickering emulsions and particle stabilization
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Cheng KC, Catchmark JM, Demirci A (2009) Effect of different additives on bacterial cellulose production by Acetobacter xylinum and analysis of material property. Cellulose 16(6):103310.1007/s10570-009-9346-5 ↗
2. Shezad O, Khan S, Khan T, Park JK (2009) Production of bacterial cellulose in static conditions by a simple fed-batch cultivation strategy. Korean J Chem Eng 26(6):1689–169210.1007/s11814-009-0232-5 ↗
3. Chen SQ, Lopez Sanchez P, Wang D, Mikkelsen D, Gidley MJ (2018) Mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose synthesised by diverse strains of the genus Komagataeibacter. Food Hydrocoll 81:87–9510.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.02.031 ↗
4. Foresti ML, Vázquez A, Boury B (2017) Applications of bacterial cellulose as precursor of carbon and composites with metal oxide, metal sulfide and metal nanoparticles: a review of recent advances. Carbohyd Polym 157:447–46710.1016/j.carbpol.2016.09.008 ↗
5. Cielecka I, Szustak M, Kalinowska H, Gendaszewska-Darmach E, Ryngajłło M, Maniukiewicz W, Bielecki S (2019) Glycerol-plasticized bacterial nanocellulose-based composites with enhanced flexibility and liquid sorption capacity. Cellulose 26(9):5409–542610.1007/s10570-019-02501-1 ↗
6. Barud HS, Souza JL, Santos DB, Crespi MS, Ribeiro CA, Messaddeq Y, Ribeiro S (2011) Bacterial cellulose/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) composite membranes. Carbohyd Polym 83(3):1279–128410.1016/j.carbpol.2010.09.049 ↗
7. Dahman Y (2009) Nanostructured biomaterials and biocomposites from bacterial cellulose nanofibers. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 9:5105–512210.1166/jnn.2009.1466 ↗
8. Ul-Islam M, Khan T, Park J (2012) Water holding and release properties of bacterial cellulose obtained by in situ and ex situ modification. Carbohyd Polym 88(2):596–60310.1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.006 ↗
9. Nishiyama Y, Langan P, Chanzy H (2002) Crystal structure and hydrogen-bonding system in cellulose Iβ from synchrotron X-ray and neutron fiber diffraction. J Am Chem Soc 124:9074–908210.1021/ja0257319 ↗
10. Iguchi M, Yamanaka S, Budhiono A (2000) Bacterial cellulose-a masterpiece of nature’s arts. J Mater Sci 35(2):261–27010.1023/A:1004775229149 ↗
11. Chao Y, Ishida T, Sugano Y, Shoda M (2015) Bacterial cellulose production by Acetobacter xylinum in a 50-L internal-loop airlift reactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 68(3):345–35210.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(20000505)68:3<345::AID-BIT13>3.0.CO;2-M ↗
12. Kashcheyeva EI, Gladysheva EK, Skiba EA, Budaeva VV (2019) A study of properties and enzymatic hydrolysis of bacterial cellulose. Cellulose 26:2255–226510.1007/s10570-018-02242-7 ↗
13. Benítez AJ, Torres-Rendon J, Poutanen M, Walther A (2013) Humidity and multiscale structure govern mechanical properties and deformation modes in films of native cellulose nanofibrils. Biomacromol 14(12):4497–450610.1021/bm401451m ↗
14. Yousefi H, Nishino T, Faezipour M, Ebrahimi G, Shakeri A (2011) Direct fabrication of all-cellulose nanocomposite from cellulose microfibers using ionic liquid-based nanowelding. Biomacromol 12:4080–408510.1021/bm201147a ↗
15. Tahara N, Tabuchi M, Watanabe K, Yano H, Morinaga Y, Yoshinaga F (1997) Degree of polymerization of cellulose from acetobacter xylinum BPR2001 decreased by cellulase produced by the strain. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 61(11):1862–186510.1271/bbb.61.1862 ↗
16. Watanabe K, Tabuchi M, Morinaga Y, Yoshinaga F (1998) Structural features and properties of bacterial cellulose produced in agitated culture. Cellulose 5(3):187–20010.1023/A:1009272904582 ↗
17. Wu Z, Liang H, Chen L, Hu B, Yu S (2016) Bacterial cellulose: a robust platform for design of three dimensional carbon-based functional nanomaterials. Acc Chem Res 49:96–10510.1021/acs.accounts.5b00380 ↗
18. Shah N, Ul-Islam M, Khattak W, Park J (2013) Overview of bacterial cellulose composites: a multipurpose advanced material. Carbohydr Polym 98(2):1585–159810.1016/j.carbpol.2013.08.018 ↗
19. Cacicedo ML, Castro MC, Servetas I, Bosnea L, Boura K, Tsafrakidou P, Dima A, Terpou A, Koutinas A, Castro GR (2016) Progress in bacterial cellulose matrices for biotechnological applications. Bioresour Technol 213:172–18010.1016/j.biortech.2016.02.071 ↗
20. Romling U, Galperin MY (2015) Bacterial cellulose biosynthesis: diversity of operons, subunits, products, and functions. Trends Microbiol 23:545–55710.1016/j.tim.2015.05.005 ↗
21. Czaja W, Romanovicz D, Brown RM (2004) Structural investigations of microbial cellulose produced in stationary and agitated culture. Cellulose 11(3):403–41110.1023/B:CELL.0000046412.11983.61 ↗
22. Huang Y, Zhu C, Yang J, Nie Y, Chen C, Sun D (2014) Recent advances in bacterial cellulose. Cellulose 21(1):1–3010.1007/s10570-013-0088-z ↗
23. Jonas R, Farah LF (1998) Production and application of microbial cellulose. Polym Degrad Stab 59:101–10610.1016/S0141-3910(97)00197-3 ↗
24. Atalla RH, Vanderhart DL (1984) Native cellulose: a composite of two distinct crystalline forms. Science 223:283–28510.1126/science.223.4633.283 ↗
25. Imai T, Sugiyama J (1998) Nanodomains of Iα and Iβ cellulose in algal microfibrils. Macromolecules 31:6275–627910.1021/ma980664h ↗
26. Sugiyama J, Harada H, Fujiyoshi Y, Uyeda N (1985) Lattice images from ultrathin sections of cellulosse microfibrils in the cell-wall of valonia-macrophysa kutz. Planta 166:161–16810.1007/BF00397343 ↗
27. Sun D, Zhou L, Wu Q, Yang S (2007) Preliminary research on structure and properties of nano-cellulose. J Wuhan Univ Technol Mater Sci Ed 22(004):677–68010.1007/s11595-006-4677-7 ↗
28. Gullo M, La China S, Falcone P, Giudici P (2018) Biotechnological production of cellulose by acetic acid bacteria: current state and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 102(16):6885–689810.1007/s00253-018-9164-5 ↗
29. Yamamoto H (1996) In situ crystallization of bacterial cellulose II Influences of different polymeric additives on the formation of celluloses Iα and Iβ at the early stage of incubation. Cellulose 3:229–24210.1007/BF02228804 ↗
30. Mona M, Amin BM, Susan A, Raha AR, Arbakariya BA, Wan ZS, Mohammad N, Rosfarizan M (2017) Production and status of bacterial cellulose in biomedical engineering. Nanomaterials 7(9):25710.3390/nano7090257 ↗
31. Shahriari Khalaji M, Hu G, Chen L, Cao Z, Andreeva T, Xiong X, Krastev R, Hong F (2021) Functionalization of aminoalkylsilane-grafted bacterial nanocellulose with ZnO-NPs-doped pullulan electrospun nanofibers for multifunctional wound dressing. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 7(8):3933–394610.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00444 ↗
32. Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink H, Bohn A (2005) Cellulose: fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed 44(22):3358–339310.1002/anie.200460587 ↗
33. Basta AH, El SH (2010) Performance of improved bacterial cellulose application in the production of functional paper. J Appl Microbiol 107:2098–210710.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04467.x ↗
34. Ciolacu DE, Suflet DM (2018) Cellulose-based hydrogels for medical/pharmaceutical applications, biomass as renewable raw material to obtain bioproducts of high-tech value 401–43910.1016/B978-0-444-63774-1.00011-9 ↗
35. Fontana JD, Souza A, Fontana CK, Torriani IL, Farah L (1990) Acetobacter cellulose pellicle as a temporary skin substitute. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 24–25(1):253–26410.1007/BF02920250 ↗
36. Lin W, Lien C, Yeh H, Yu C, Hsu S (2013) Bacterial cellulose and bacterial cellulose-chitosan membranes for wound dressing applications. Carbohyd Polym 94(1):603–61110.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.076 ↗
37. Feng Z, Odelius K, Rajarao GK, Hakkarainen M (2018) Microwave carbonized cellulose for trace pharmaceutical adsorption. Chem Eng J 346:557–56610.1016/j.cej.2018.04.014 ↗
38. Azeredo H, Barud H, Farinas CS, Vasconcellos VM, Claro AM (2019) Bacterial cellulose as a raw material for food and food packaging applications, Front Sustain Food Syst 11310.3389/fsufs.2019.00007 ↗
39. Ren L, Yan X, Jiang Z, Jin T, Su X (2017) Influence of chitosan concentration on mechanical and barrier properties of corn starch/chitosan films. Int J Biol Macromol 105:163610.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.02.008 ↗
40. Zhao XQ, Wahid F, Cui JX, Wang YY, Zhong C (2021) Cellulose-based special wetting materials for oil/water separation: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 185:890–90610.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.167 ↗
41. Wahid F, Zhao X, Cui J, Wang Y, Wang F, Jia S, Zhong C (2022) Fabrication of bacterial cellulose with TiO2-ZnO nanocomposites as a multifunctional membrane for water remediation-ScienceDirect. J Colloid Interface Sci 620:1–1310.1016/j.jcis.2022.03.108 ↗
42. Chen L, Huang Z, Liang H, Gao H, Yu S (2015) Three-dimensional heteroatom-doped carbon nanofiber networks derived from bacterial cellulose for supercapacitors. Adv Func Mater 24(32):5104–511110.1002/adfm.201400590 ↗
43. Ama B, Ps C, Sag D, Rk A, Sa E, Mb F, Abg H (2021) Nanocelluloses as skin biocompatible materials for skincare, cosmetics, and healthcare: Formulations, regulations, and emerging applications, Carbohydr Polym 27810.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118956 ↗
44. Dayal MS, Catchmark JM (2016) Mechanical and structural property analysis of bacterial cellulose composites. Carbohyd Polym 144:447–45310.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.055 ↗
45. Mokhena T, Sadiku E, Mochane M, Ray S, John M, Mtibe A (2021) Mechanical properties of cellulose nanofibril papers and their bionanocomposites: a review. Carbohyd Polym 273:11850710.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118507 ↗
46. Quero F, Nogi M, Lee KY, Poel GV, Bismarck A, Mantalaris A, Yano H, Eichhorn SJ (2010) Cross-linked bacterial cellulose networks using glyoxalization. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:490–49910.1021/am101065p ↗
47. Meng Q, Bo L, Teng L, Feng X (2017) A multiscale crack-bridging model of cellulose nanopaper. J Mech Phys Solids 103:22–3910.1016/j.jmps.2017.03.004 ↗
48. Zhu H, Zhu S, Jia Z, Parvinian S, Li Y, Vaaland O, Hu L, Li T (2015) Anomalous scaling law of strength and toughness of cellulose nanopaper. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112(29):8971–897610.1073/pnas.1502870112 ↗
49. Chen SQ, Meldrum OW, Liao Q, Li Z, Li NL (2021) The influence of alkaline treatment on the mechanical and structural properties of bacterial cellulose. Carbohyd Polym 271(1):11843110.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118431 ↗
50. Wahid F, Huang L, Zhao X, Li W, Wang Y, Jia S, Zhong C (2021) Bacterial cellulose and its potential for biomedical applications. Biotechnol Adv 53:10785610.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107856 ↗
51. Zhang X, Nguyen H, Daly M, Nguyen S, Espinosa HD (2019) Nanoscale toughening of ultrathin graphene oxide-polymer composites: mechanochemical insights into hydrogen-bonding/van der Waals interactions, polymer chain alignment, and steric parameters. Nanoscale 11(25):12305–1231610.1039/C9NR01453E ↗
52. Sun YY, Fan W, Zou C, Wei LH, Liu JQ, Xu Y (2019) Ternary supramolecular ensembles of cellulose nanocrystals exhibiting multiscale deformation and mechano/chemoresponsive selective reflection of circularly polarized light. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 7(7):6851–685810.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06230 ↗
53. Mokhena T, Sadiku E, Mochane M, Ray S, John M, Mtibe A (2021) Mechanical properties of cellulose nanofibril papers and their bionanocomposites: a review. Carbohyd Polym 273:11850710.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118507 ↗
54. Arrieta MP, Fortunati E, Burgos N, Peltzer MA, Peponi L (2016) Nanocellulose-based polymeric blends for food packaging applications, Elsevier Inc10.1016/B978-0-323-44248-0.00007-9 ↗
55. Retegi A, Gabilondo N, Pena C, Zuluaga R, Castro C, Ganan P, Caba K, Mondragon I (2010) Bacterial cellulose films with controlled microstructure-mechanical property relationships. Cellulose 17(3):661–66910.1007/s10570-009-9389-7 ↗
56. Feng X, Ullah N, Wang X, Sun X, Li C, Bai Y, Chen L, Li Z (2015) Characterization of bacterial cellulose by gluconacetobacter hansenii CGMCC 3917. J Food Sci 80:2217–2227
57. Nakagaito AN, Iwamoto S, Yano H (2005) Bacterial cellulose: the ultimate nano-scalar cellulose morphology for the production of high-strength composites. Appl Phys A 80(1):93–9710.1007/s00339-004-2932-3 ↗
58. Zywicka A, Junka A, Szymczyk P, Chodaczek G, Grzesiak J, Sedghizadeh P, Fijalkowski K (2018) Bacterial cellulose yield increased over 500% by supplementation of medium with vegetable oil. Carbohydr Polym 199:294–30310.1016/j.carbpol.2018.06.126 ↗
59. Lossada F, Guo J, Jiao D, Groeer S, Bourgeat-Lami E, Montarnal D, Walther A (2018) Vitrimer chemistry meets cellulose nanofibrils: bioinspired nanopapers with high water resistance and strong adhesion. Biomacromol 20(2):1045–105510.1021/acs.biomac.8b01659 ↗
60. Jiang F, Hsieh Y (2014) Amphiphilic superabsorbent cellulose nanofibril aerogels. J Mater Chem A 2(18):6337–634210.1039/C4TA00743C ↗
61. Karageorgiou V, Kaplan D (2005) Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials 26(27):5474–549110.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.02.002 ↗
62. Mautner A, Wan M, Lee KY, Bismarck A (2020) High porosity cellulose nanopapers as reinforcement in multi-layer epoxy laminates. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 131:10577910.1016/j.compositesa.2020.105779 ↗
63. Henriksson M, Berglund LA, Isaksson P, Lindstrom T, Nishino T (2008) Cellulose nanopaper structures of high toughness. Biomacromol 9(6):1579–158510.1021/bm800038n ↗
64. Zhang H, Xu X, Chen C, Chen X, Huang Y, Sun D (2019) In situ controllable fabrication of porous bacterial cellulose. Mater Lett 249:104–10710.1016/j.matlet.2019.04.026 ↗
65. Na Y, Stilwell M, Santos T, Wang H, Weibel DB (2015) Agarose particle-templated porous bacterial cellulose and its application in cartilage growth in vitro. Acta Biomater 12(1):129–138
66. Laitinen O, Suopajärvi TT, Österberg M, Liimatainen H (2017) Hydrophobic, superabsorbing aerogels from choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent pretreated and silylated cellulose nanofibrils for selective oil removal. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9(9):25029–2503710.1021/acsami.7b06304 ↗
67. Huang L, Liu Q, Sun X, Li X, Liu M, Jia S, Xie Y, Zhong C (2020) Tailoring bacterial cellulose structure through CRISPR interference-mediated downregulation of galU in Komagataeibacter xylinus CGMCC 2955. Biotechnol Bioeng 117:2165–217610.1002/bit.27351 ↗
68. Wahid F, Zhao XJ, Duan YX, Zhao XQ, Jia SR, Zhong C (2021) Designing of bacterial cellulose-based superhydrophilic/underwater superoleophobic membrane for oil/water separation. Carbohyd Polym 257:11761110.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117611 ↗
69. Ruan C, Zhu Y, Zhou X, Abidi N, Hu Y, Catchmark JM (2016) Effect of cellulose crystallinity on bacterial cellulose assembly. Cellulose 23(6):3417–342710.1007/s10570-016-1065-0 ↗
70. Kumar R, Rai B, Gahlyan S, Kumar G (2021) A comprehensive review on production, surface modification and characterization of nanocellulose derived from biomass and its commercial applications. Exp Polym Lett 15:104–12010.3144/expresspolymlett.2021.11 ↗
71. Yousefi H, Faezipour M, Hedjazi S, Mousavi MM, Azusa Y, Heidari AH (2013) Comparative study of paper and nanopaper properties prepared from bacterial cellulose nanofibers and fibers/ground cellulose nanofibers of canola straw. Ind Crops Products 43:732–73710.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.030 ↗
72. Henriksson M, Henriksson G, Berglund LA, Lindström T (2007) An environmentally friendly method for enzyme-assisted preparation of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) nanofiber. Eur Polym J 43(8):3434–344110.1016/j.eurpolymj.2007.05.038 ↗
73. Puangsin B, Yang Q, Saito T, Isogai A (2013) Comparative characterization of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibril films prepared from non-wood resources. Int J Biol Macromol 59:208–21310.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.04.016 ↗
74. Singh A, Tang L, Dao M, Lu L, Suresh S (2011) Fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth characteristics of nanotwinned copper. Acta Mater 59(6):2437–244610.1016/j.actamat.2010.12.043 ↗
75. Lossada F, Guo J, Jiao D, Groeer S, Bourgeat-Lami E, Montarnal D, Walther A (2019) Vitrimer chemistry meets cellulose nanofibrils: bioinspired nanopapers with high water resistance and strong adhesion. Nat Rev Neurosci 20(2):1045–1055
76. Wang S, Li T, Chen C, Kong W, Zhu S, Dai J, Diaz AJ, Hitz E, Solares SD, Li T (2018) Transparent, anisotropic biofilm with aligned bacterial cellulose nanofibers. Adv Funct Mater 28(24):170749110.1002/adfm.201707491 ↗
77. Lassoued M, Crispino F, Loranger E (2020) Design and synthesis of transparent and flexible nanofibrillated cellulose films to replace petroleum-based polymers. Carbohyd Polym 254(1):117411
78. Wang L, Mao L, Qi F, Li X, Yang G (2021) Synergistic effect of highly aligned bacterial cellulose/gelatin membranes and electrical stimulation on directional cell migration for accelerated wound healing. Chem Eng J 424:13056310.1016/j.cej.2021.130563 ↗
79. Tsouko E, Kourmentza C, Ladakis D, Kopsahelis N (2015) Ioanna, Bacterial cellulose production from industrial waste and by-product streams. Int J Mol Sci 16:14832–1484910.3390/ijms160714832 ↗
80. Kumbhar JV, Rajwade JM, Paknikar KM (2015) Fruit peels support higher yield and superior quality bacterial cellulose production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99(16):6677–669110.1007/s00253-015-6644-8 ↗
81. Augimeri RV, Varley AJ, Strap JL (2015) Establishing a role for bacterial cellulose in environmental interactions: lessons learned from diversebiofilm-producing proteobacteria. Front Microbiol 6:1282
82. Zeng M, Laromaine A, Roig A (2014) Bacterial cellulose films: influence of bacterial strain and drying route on film properties. Cellulose 21(6):4455–446910.1007/s10570-014-0408-y ↗
83. Lu T, Gao H, Liao B, Wu J (2019) Jiang, Characterization and optimization of production of bacterial cellulose from strain CGMCC 17276 based on whole-genome analysis. Carbohyd Polym 232(11):115788
84. Ruka D, Simon G, Dean K (2012) Altering the growth conditions of Gluconacetobacter xylinus to maximize the yield of bacterial cellulose. Carbohyd Polym 89(2):613–62210.1016/j.carbpol.2012.03.059 ↗
85. Wang J, Tavakoli J, Tang Y (2019) Bacterial cellulose production, properties and applications with different culture methods—A review. Carbohyd Polym 219:63–7610.1016/j.carbpol.2019.05.008 ↗
86. Volova T, Prudnikova S, Sukovatyi A, Shishatskaya E (2018) Production and properties of bacterial cellulose by the strain Komagataeibacter xylinus B-12068. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 102(17):7417–742810.1007/s00253-018-9198-8 ↗
87. Patricia C, Manuel V, Gonzalo V (2018) Novel composite films based on cellulose reinforced with chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol: effect on mechanical properties and water vapour permeability. Polym Testing 69:536–54410.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.06.016 ↗
88. Khan H, Kadam A, Dutt D (2019) Studies on bacterial cellulose produced by a novel strain of lactobacillus genus. Carbohyd Polym 229(22):115513
89. Mohammadkazemi F, Azin M, Ashori A (2015) Production of bacterial cellulose using different carbon sources and culture media. Carbohyd Polym 117:518–52310.1016/j.carbpol.2014.10.008 ↗
90. Dubey S, Sharma RK, Agarwal P, Singh J, Sinha N, Singh RP (2016) From rotten grapes to industrial exploitation: Komagataeibacter europaeus SGP37, a micro-factory for macroscale production of bacterial nanocellulose. Int J Biol Macromol 96:52–6010.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.12.016 ↗
91. Poletto M, Ornaghi H, Zattera A (2014) Characterization of methylcellulose produced from sugar cane bagasse cellulose: crystallinity and thermal properties. Materials 7:6105–611910.3390/ma7096105 ↗
92. Kumar A, Negi YS, Choudhary V, Bhardwaj NK (2020) Characterization of cellulose nanocrystals produced by acid-hydrolysis from sugarcane bagasse as agro-waste. Carbohyd Polym 229:115513
93. Kumar V, Sharma DK, Bansal V, Mehta D, Sangwan RS, Yadav SK (2019) Efficient and economic process for the production of bacterial cellulose from isolated strain of Acetobacter pasteurianus of RSV-4 bacterium. Biores Technol 275:430–43310.1016/j.biortech.2018.12.042 ↗
94. Liu D, Cao Y, Qu R, Gao G, Chen S, Zhang Y, Wu M, Ma T, Li G (2019) Production of bacterial cellulose hydrogels with tailored crystallinity from Enterobacter sp. FY-07 by the controlled expression of colanic acid synthetic genes. Carbohydr Polym 207:563–57010.1016/j.carbpol.2018.12.014 ↗
95. Jacek P, Kubiak K, Ryngajo M, Rytczak P, Bielecki S (2019) Modification of bacterial nanocellulose properties through mutation of motility related genes in Komagataeibacter hansenii ATCC 53582. New Biotechnol 52:60–6810.1016/j.nbt.2019.05.004 ↗
96. Ding R, Hu S, Xu M, Hu Q, Zhang T (2021) The facile and controllable synthesis of a bacterial cellulose/polyhydroxybutyrate composite by co-culturing Gluconacetobacter xylinus and Ralstonia eutropha. Carbohyd Polym 252(3):11713710.1016/S0144-8617(02)00190-X ↗
97. Li WC, Huang XX, Liu H, Lian H, Xu B, Zhang WJ, Sun XW, Wang W, Jia SR, Zhong C (2023) Improvement in bacterial cellulose production by co-culturing Bacillus cereus and Komagataeibacter xylinus. Carbohyd Polym 313:120892
98. Liu K, Catchmark JM (2019) Enhanced mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose nanocomposites produced by co-culturing Gluconacetobacter hansenii and Escherichia coli under static conditions. Carbohyd Polym 219:1210.1016/j.carbpol.2019.04.071 ↗
99. Tapias Y, Di Monte M, Peltzer M, Salvay A (2022) Bacterial cellulose films production by Kombucha symbiotic community cultured on different herbal infusions. Food Chem 372:13134610.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131346 ↗
100. May A, Narayanan S, Alcock J, Varsani A, Aktipis A (2019) Kombucha: a novel model system for cooperation and conflict in a complex multi-species microbial ecosystem. PeerJ 7(2):e756510.7717/peerj.7565 ↗