Recent trends on biomaterials for tissue regeneration applications: review
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Tissue engineering is approach of replacing or regeneration of biological functions of tissues or organs by using combination of biomaterials, biomolecules and cells. Tissue engineering mainly depends scaffold biomaterials and scaffold fabrication methods. Therefore, there have been progressive investigation and development of new biomaterials with different formulations to help and achieve necessary requirements in the tissue engineering applications. This review is briefly representing necessary features associated with biomaterial type and design required for tissue regeneration applications, and presenting earlier research in tissue engineering field and new trends for future implementation. It is mainly focusing on generations of biomaterials and discovery tissue engineering field. As well as, different types of biomaterials, such as bioceramics, bioactive glasses, synthetic and natural polymers and their derived composites, used in fabrication of scaffolds (as a main part of tissue engineering) are demonstrated in this review. Scaffold fabrication methods are also reviewed here. Moreover, it is showing the recent achievements in tissue engineering field for bone, skin, cartilage, neural, and cardiac regeneration as a pre-clinical procedure for repair of injured and diseased tissues and organs. Finally, recent trends and challenges of biomaterials for tissue regeneration are presented also in this review. Graphical abstract
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Bone Tissue Engineering Materials · Electrospun Nanofibers in Biomedical Applications · 3D Printing in Biomedical Research
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Langer R, Vacanti JP (1993) Tissue engineering. Science I 993:26010.1126/science.8493529 ↗
2. Hench LL, Polak JM (2002) Third-generation biomedical materials. Science 295:1014–101710.1126/science.1067404 ↗
3. Williams D (2004) Benefit and risk in tissue engineering. Mater Today 7:24–2910.1016/S1369-7021(04)00232-9 ↗
4. Hutmacher DW (2001) Scaffold design and fabrication technologies for engineering tissues—state of the art and future perspectives. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 12:107–12410.1163/156856201744489 ↗
5. Asadian M, Chan KV, Norouzi M, Grande S, Cools P, Morent R et al (2020) Fabrication and plasma modification of nanofibrous tissue engineering Scaffolds. Nanomaterials 10:11910.3390/nano10010119 ↗
6. Hench LL, Splinter RJ, Allen W, Greenlee T (1971) Bonding mechanisms at the interface of ceramic prosthetic materials. J Biomed Mater Res 5:117–14110.1002/jbm.820050611 ↗
7. Hench LL (1998) Bioactive materials: the potential for tissue regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res 41:511–51810.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(19980915)41:4<511::AID-JBM1>3.0.CO;2-F ↗
8. Rahaman MN, Day DE, Bal BS, Fu Q, Jung SB, Bonewald LF et al (2011) Bioactive glass in tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 7:2355–237310.1016/j.actbio.2011.03.016 ↗
9. Hench L, Paschall H (1974) Histochemical responses at a biomaterial’s interface. J Biomed Mater Res 8:49–6410.1002/jbm.820080307 ↗
10. Hench LL, Andersson O (1993) Bioactive glasses. Adv Ser Ceram 1:41–62
11. Kokubo T, Ito S, Huang ZT, Hayashi T, Sakka S, Kitsugi T et al (1990) Ca, P-rich layer formed on high-strength bioactive glass-ceramic A-W. J Biomed Mater Res 24:331–34310.1002/jbm.820240306 ↗
12. Andersson Ö, Liu G, Kangasniemi K, Juhanoja J (1992) Evaluation of the acceptance of glass in bone. J Mater Sci Mater Med 3:145–15010.1007/BF00705283 ↗
13. Yao A, Wang D, Huang W, Fu Q, Rahaman MN, Day DE (2007) In vitro bioactive characteristics of borate-based glasses with controllable degradation behavior. J Am Ceram Soc 90:303–30610.1111/j.1551-2916.2006.01358.x ↗
14. Fu Q, Rahaman MN, Fu H, Liu X (2010) Silicate, borosilicate, and borate bioactive glass scaffolds with controllable degradation rate for bone tissue engineering applications. I. Preparation and in vitro degradation. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 95:164–17110.1002/jbm.a.32824 ↗
15. Marion NW, Liang W, Liang W, Reilly GC, Day DE, Rahaman MN et al (2005) Borate glass supports the in vitro osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Mech Adv Mater Struct 12:239–24610.1080/15376490590928615 ↗
16. El-Meliegy E, Farag MM, Knowles JC (2016) Dissolution and drug release profiles of phosphate glasses doped with high valency oxides. J Mater Sci Mater Med 27:10810.1007/s10856-016-5711-8 ↗
17. Hench LL (2006) The story of Bioglass®. J Mater Sci Mater Med 17:967–97810.1007/s10856-006-0432-z ↗
18. Vallet-Regí M, Ragel C, Salinas AJ (2003) Glasses with medical applications. Eur J Inorg Chem 2003:1029–104210.1002/ejic.200390134 ↗
19. Li R, Clark A, Hench L (1991) An investigation of bioactive glass powders by sol-gel processing. J Appl Biomater 2:231–23910.1002/jab.770020403 ↗
20. De Aza P, Guitian F, Merlos A, Lora-Tamayo E, De Aza S (1996) Bioceramics—simulated body fluid interfaces: pH and its influence of hydroxyapatite formation. J Mater Sci Mater Med 7:399–40210.1007/BF00122007 ↗
21. Brinker CJ, Scherer GW (2013) Sol–gel science: the physics and chemistry of sol–gel processing. Academic Press, Cambridge
22. McDonagh C, Sheridan F, Butler T, MacCraith B (1996) Characterisation of sol–gel-derived silica films. J Non-Cryst Solids 194:72–7710.1016/0022-3093(95)00488-2 ↗
23. Stookey S (1959) Catalyzed crystallization of glass in theory and practice. Ind Eng Chem 51:805–80810.1021/ie50595a022 ↗
24. Yuan H, de Bruijn JD, Zhang X, van Blitterswijk CA, de Groot K (2001) Bone induction by porous glass ceramic made from Bioglass®(45S5). J Biomed Mater Res 58:270–27610.1002/1097-4636(2001)58:3<270::AID-JBM1016>3.0.CO;2-2 ↗
25. Baino F, Fiume E, Barberi J, Kargozar S, Marchi J, Massera J et al (2019) Processing methods for making porous bioactive glass-based scaffolds—a state-of-the-art review. Int J Appl Ceram Technol 16:1762–179610.1111/ijac.13195 ↗
26. Fu Q, Rahaman MN, Bal BS, Brown RF (2010) Preparation and in vitro evaluation of bioactive glass (13–93) scaffolds with oriented microstructures for repair and regeneration of load-bearing bones. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 93:1380–139010.1002/jbm.a.32637 ↗
27. Fu Q, Rahaman MN, Bal BS, Brown RF, Day DE (2008) Mechanical and in vitro performance of 13–93 bioactive glass scaffolds prepared by a polymer foam replication technique. Acta Biomater 4:1854–186410.1016/j.actbio.2008.04.019 ↗
28. Keaveny T, Hayes W, Hall B (1993) Bone. A treatise, vol 7: Bone growth; B
29. Fung Y-C (2013) Biomechanics: mechanical properties of living tissues. Springer, Berlin
30. Baino F, Verné E, Vitale-Brovarone C (2009) 3-D high-strength glass–ceramic scaffolds containing fluoroapatite for load-bearing bone portions replacement. Mater Sci Eng C 29:2055–206210.1016/j.msec.2009.04.002 ↗
31. Farag MM, Rüssel C (2012) Glass-ceramic scaffolds derived from Bioglass® and glass with low crystallization affinity for bone regeneration. Mater Lett 73:161–16510.1016/j.matlet.2011.12.110 ↗
32. Wu C, Zhou Y, Xu M, Han P, Chen L, Chang J et al (2013) Copper-containing mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds with multifunctional properties of angiogenesis capacity, osteostimulation and antibacterial activity. Biomaterials 34:422–43310.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.09.066 ↗
33. Gogele C, Wiltzsch S, Lenhart A, Civilleri A, Weiger TM, Schafer-Eckart K et al (2021) Highly porous novel chondro-instructive bioactive glass scaffolds tailored for cartilage tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng, C Mater Biol Appl 130:11242110.1016/j.msec.2021.112421 ↗
34. Driessens F (2018) Formation and stability of calcium phosphates in relation to the phase composition of the mineral in calcified tissues. In: Bioceramics of calcium phosphate. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1–3210.1201/9781351070133-1 ↗
35. Bohner M (2010) Design of ceramic-based cements and putties for bone graft substitution. Eur Cell Mater 20:1–1210.22203/eCM.v020a01 ↗
36. Wei J, Jia J, Wu F, Wei S, Zhou H, Zhang H et al (2010) Hierarchically microporous/macroporous scaffold of magnesium–calcium phosphate for bone tissue regeneration. Biomaterials 31:1260–126910.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.005 ↗
37. Zhang J, Zhou H, Yang K, Yuan Y, Liu C (2013) RhBMP-2-loaded calcium silicate/calcium phosphate cement scaffold with hierarchically porous structure for enhanced bone tissue regeneration. Biomaterials 34:9381–939210.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.08.059 ↗
38. Wagh AS, Primus C (2006) Method and product for phosphosilicate slurry for use in dentistry and related bone cements. Google Patents
39. Farag MM, Yun H-S (2014) Effect of gelatin addition on fabrication of magnesium phosphate-based scaffolds prepared by additive manufacturing system. Mater Lett 132:111–21110.1016/j.matlet.2014.06.055 ↗
40. Jongman Lee MMF, Park EK, Lim J, Yun H-s (2014) A simultaneous process of 3D magnesiumphosphate scaffold fabrication and bioactive substance loading for hard tissue regeneration. Mater Sci Eng C 36:52–260
41. Moseke C, Saratsis V, Gbureck U (2011) Injectability and mechanical properties of magnesium phosphate cements. J Mater Sci Mater Med 22:2591–259810.1007/s10856-011-4442-0 ↗
42. Tamimi F, Le Nihouannen D, Bassett DC, Ibasco S, Gbureck U, Knowles J et al (2011) Biocompatibility of magnesium phosphate minerals and their stability under physiological conditions. Acta Biomater 7:2678–268510.1016/j.actbio.2011.02.007 ↗
43. Yu Y, Wang J, Liu C, Zhang B, Chen H, Guo H et al (2010) Evaluation of inherent toxicology and biocompatibility of magnesium phosphate bone cement. Colloids Surf, B 76:496–50410.1016/j.colsurfb.2009.12.010 ↗
44. Mestres G, Ginebra MP (2011) Novel magnesium phosphate cements with high early strength and antibacterial properties. Acta Biomater 7:1853–186110.1016/j.actbio.2010.12.008 ↗
45. Maguire ME, Cowan JA (2002) Magnesium chemistry and biochemistry. Biometals 15:203–21010.1023/A:1016058229972 ↗
46. Wacker WE (1980) Magnesium and man. Harvard University Press, Cambridge10.4159/harvard.9780674366374 ↗
47. Elin RJ (2010) Assessment of magnesium status for diagnosis and therapy. Magnes Res 23:S194–S198
48. Welch AA, Skinner J, Hickson M (2017) Dietary magnesium may be protective for aging of bone and skeletal muscle in middle and younger older age men and women: cross-sectional findings from the UK Biobank cohort. Nutrients 9:118910.3390/nu9111189 ↗
49. Lee J, Farag MM, Park EK, Lim J, Yun HS (2014) A simultaneous process of 3D magnesium phosphate scaffold fabrication and bioactive substance loading for hard tissue regeneration. Mater Sci Eng, C Mater Biol Appl 36:252–26010.1016/j.msec.2013.12.007 ↗
50. Götz L-M, Holeczek K, Groll J, Jüngst T, Gbureck U (2021) Extrusion-based 3D printing of calcium magnesium phosphate cement pastes for degradable bone implants. Materials 14:519710.3390/ma14185197 ↗
51. Farag M, Liu H, Makhlouf A (2021) New nano-bioactive glass/magnesium phosphate composites by sol–gel route for bone defect treatment. SILICON 13:857–86510.1007/s12633-020-00485-3 ↗
52. Abdelraof M, Farag MM, Al-Rashidy ZM, Ahmed HY, El-Saied H, Hasanin MS (2022) Green synthesis of bioactive hydroxyapatite/cellulose composites from food industrial wastes. J Inorg Organomet Polym 32(12):4614–462610.1007/s10904-022-02462-2 ↗
53. Fratzl P, Misof K, Zizak I, Rapp G, Amenitsch H, Bernstorff S (1998) Fibrillar structure and mechanical properties of collagen. J Struct Biol 122:119–12210.1006/jsbi.1998.3966 ↗
54. Lou X, Chirila TV (1999) Swelling behavior and mechanical properties of chemically cross-linked gelatin gels for biomedical use. J Biomater Appl 14:184–19110.1177/088532829901400204 ↗
55. Rinaudo M (2006) Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog Polym Sci 31:603–63210.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001 ↗
56. Kim HW, Song JH, Kim HE (2006) Bioactive glass nanofiber–collagen nanocomposite as a novel bone regeneration matrix. J Biomed Mater Res, Part A 79:698–70510.1002/jbm.a.30848 ↗
57. Bae WJ, Min KS, Kim JJ, Kim JJ, Kim HW, Kim EC (2012) Odontogenic responses of human dental pulp cells to collagen/nanobioactive glass nanocomposites. Dental Mater 28:1271–127910.1016/j.dental.2012.09.011 ↗
58. Marelli B, Ghezzi CE, Mohn D, Stark WJ, Barralet JE, Boccaccini AR et al (2011) Accelerated mineralization of dense collagen-nano bioactive glass hybrid gels increases scaffold stiffness and regulates osteoblastic function. Biomaterials 32:8915–892610.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.016 ↗
59. Mozafari M, Moztarzadeh F, Rabiee M, Azami M, Maleknia S, Tahriri M et al (2010) Development of macroporous nanocomposite scaffolds of gelatin/bioactive glass prepared through layer solvent casting combined with lamination technique for bone tissue engineering. Ceram Int 36:2431–243910.1016/j.ceramint.2010.07.010 ↗
60. Mozafari M, Rabiee M, Azami M, Maleknia S (2010) Biomimetic formation of apatite on the surface of porous gelatin/bioactive glass nanocomposite scaffolds. Appl Surf Sci 257:1740–174910.1016/j.apsusc.2010.09.008 ↗
61. Lei B, Wang L, Chen X, Chae S-K (2013) Biomimetic and molecular level-based silicate bioactive glass–gelatin hybrid implants for loading-bearing bone fixation and repair. J Mater Chem B 1:5153–516210.1039/c3tb20941e ↗
62. Zhou Z, He S, Ou B, Huang T, Zeng W, Liu L et al (2014) Influence of nano-bioactive glass (NBG) content on properties of gelatin-hyaluronic acid/nbg composite scaffolds. J Macromol Sci Part B 53:1145–115510.1080/00222348.2014.895610 ↗
63. Gönen SÖ, Taygun ME, Aktürk A, Küçükbayrak S (2016) Fabrication of nanocomposite mat through incorporating bioactive glass particles into gelatin/poly (ε-caprolactone) nanofibers by using Box-Behnken design. Mater Sci Eng, C 67:684–69310.1016/j.msec.2016.05.065 ↗
64. Sharifi E, Azami M, Kajbafzadeh AM, Moztarzadeh F, Faridi-Majidi R, Shamousi A et al (2016) Preparation of a biomimetic composite scaffold from gelatin/collagen and bioactive glass fibers for bone tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng, C Mater Biol Appl 59:533–54110.1016/j.msec.2015.09.037 ↗
65. Yu X, Shen G, Shang Q, Zhang Z, Zhao W, Zhang P et al (2021) A Naringin-loaded gelatin-microsphere/nano-hydroxyapatite/silk fibroin composite scaffold promoted healing of critical-size vertebral defects in ovariectomised rat. Int J Biol Macromol10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.036 ↗
66. Wang S, Umrath F, Cen W, Reinert S, Alexander D (2021) Angiogenic potential of VEGF mimetic peptides for the biofunctionalization of collagen/hydroxyapatite composites. Biomolecules 11:153810.3390/biom11101538 ↗
67. Bhushan M, Mohapatra D, Kumar Y, Kasi VA (2021) Fabrication of novel bioceramic α-Fe2O3/MnO nanocomposites: study of their structural, magnetic, biocompatibility and antibacterial properties. Mater Sci Eng, B 268:11511910.1016/j.mseb.2021.115119 ↗
68. Montazeran AH, Saber Samandari S, Khandan A (2018) Artificial intelligence investigation of three silicates bioceramics-magnetite bio-nanocomposite: hyperthermia and biomedical applications. Nanomedicine Journal 5:163–171
69. Sung Y-M, Shin Y-K, Ryu J-J (2007) Preparation of hydroxyapatite/zirconia bioceramic nanocomposites for orthopaedic and dental prosthesis applications. Nanotechnology 18:06560210.1088/0957-4484/18/6/065602 ↗
70. Es-saddik M, Laasri S, Taha M, Laghzizil A, Guidara A, Chaari K et al (2021) Effect of the surface chemistry on the stability and mechanical properties of the Zirconia-Hydroxyapatite bioceramic. Surfaces and Interfaces 23:10098010.1016/j.surfin.2021.100980 ↗
71. Firouzjaei LG, Mohammadi M, Darzi GN, Nikzad M, Kazemi S (2021) Synthesis, characterization, and in-vitro evaluation of piperine-loaded silica/hydroxyapatite mesoporous nanoparticles. Chem Pap 75:6465–647510.1007/s11696-021-01813-6 ↗
72. Aghaei H, Nourbakhsh AA, Karbasi S, JavadKalbasi R, Rafienia M, Nourbakhsh N et al (2014) Investigation on bioactivity and cytotoxicity of mesoporous nano-composite MCM-48/hydroxyapatite for ibuprofen drug delivery. Ceram Int 40:7355–736210.1016/j.ceramint.2013.12.079 ↗
73. Song Z, Liu Y, Shi J, Ma T, Zhang Z, Ma H et al (2018) Hydroxyapatite/mesoporous silica coated gold nanorods with improved degradability as a multi-responsive drug delivery platform. Mater Sci Eng, C 83:90–9810.1016/j.msec.2017.11.012 ↗
74. Yamada S, Tagaya M (2017) Analytical investigation of hydration and protein adsorption structures on hydroxyapatite-based mesoporous silica particles. Mater Lett 209:441–44510.1016/j.matlet.2017.08.072 ↗
75. Guo X, Xue M, Chen F, Guo Q, Zhou X, Lin H et al (2022) Local delivery and controlled release of miR-34a loaded in hydroxyapatite/mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles composite-coated implant wire to accelerate bone fracture healing. Biomaterials 280:12130010.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121300 ↗
76. Roseti L, Parisi V, Petretta M, Cavallo C, Desando G, Bartolotti I et al (2017) Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: state of the art and new perspectives. Mater Sci Eng, C Mater Biol Appl 78:1246–126210.1016/j.msec.2017.05.017 ↗
77. Maji K, Dasgupta S, Pramanik K, Bissoyi A (2016) Preparation and evaluation of gelatin–-chitosan-nanobioglass 3D porous Scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Int J Biomater 2016:982565910.1155/2016/9825659 ↗
78. Hutmacher DW (2000) Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials 21:2529–254310.1016/S0142-9612(00)00121-6 ↗
79. Abdelaal OA, Darwish SM. Review of rapid prototyping techniques for tissue engineering scaffolds fabrication. In: Characterization and development of biosystems and biomaterials. Springer, Berlin, pp 33–5410.1007/978-3-642-31470-4_3 ↗
80. Li Z, Xie M-B, Li Y, Ma Y, Li J-S, Dai F-Y (2016) Recent progress in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. J Biomater Tissue Eng 6:755–76610.1166/jbt.2016.1510 ↗
81. Eltom A, Zhong G, Muhammad A (2019) Scaffold techniques and designs in tissue engineering functions and purposes: a review. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2019:1–1310.1155/2019/3429527 ↗
82. Jahed E, Khaledabad MA, Almasi H, Hasanzadeh R (2017) Physicochemical properties of Carum copticum essential oil loaded chitosan films containing organic nanoreinforcements. Carbohyd Polym 164:325–33810.1016/j.carbpol.2017.02.022 ↗
83. Hutmacher DW, Sittinger M, Risbud MV (2004) Scaffold-based tissue engineering: rationale for computer-aided design and solid free-form fabrication systems. Trends Biotechnol 22:354–36210.1016/j.tibtech.2004.05.005 ↗
84. Maia FR, Bastos AR, Oliveira JM, Correlo VM, Reis RL (2022) Recent approaches towards bone tissue engineering. Bone 154:11625610.1016/j.bone.2021.116256 ↗
85. Murphy SV, Atala A (2014) 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat Biotechnol 32:773–78510.1038/nbt.2958 ↗
86. Kim G, Son J, Park S, Kim W (2008) Hybrid process for fabricating 3D hierarchical scaffolds combining rapid prototyping and electrospinning. Macromol Rapid Commun 29:1577–158110.1002/marc.200800277 ↗
87. Yu Y, Hua S, Yang M, Fu Z, Teng S, Niu K et al (2016) Fabrication and characterization of electrospinning/3D printing bone tissue engineering scaffold. RSC Adv 6:110557–11056510.1039/C6RA17718B ↗
88. Vyas C, Ates G, Aslan E, Hart J, Huang B, Bartolo P (2020) Three-Dimensional Printing and Electrospinning Dual-Scale Polycaprolactone Scaffolds with Low-Density and Oriented Fibers to Promote Cell Alignment. 3D Print Add Manuf 7:105–11310.1089/3dp.2019.0091 ↗
89. Tortora GJ, Petti K (2002) Principles of human anatomy. Wiley, New York
90. Nair AK, Gautieri A, Chang S-W, Buehler MJ (2013) Molecular mechanics of mineralized collagen fibrils in bone. Nat Commun 4:172410.1038/ncomms2720 ↗
91. Lopes D, Martins-Cruz C, Oliveira MB, Mano JF (2018) Bone physiology as inspiration for tissue regenerative therapies. Biomaterials 185:240–27510.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.09.028 ↗
92. Daculsi G, Fellah B, Miramond T, Durand M (2013) Osteoconduction, osteogenicity, osteoinduction, what are the fundamental properties for a smart bone substitutes. IRBM 34:346–34810.1016/j.irbm.2013.07.001 ↗
93. Wu R, Li Y, Shen M, Yang X, Zhang L, Ke X et al (2021) Bone tissue regeneration: The role of finely tuned pore architecture of bioactive scaffolds before clinical translation. Bioact Mater 6:1242–125410.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.11.003 ↗
94. Dellavia C, Canciani E, Pellegrini G, Tommasato G, Graziano D, Chiapasco M (2021) Histological assessment of mandibular bone tissue after guided bone regeneration with customized computer-aided design/computer-assisted manufacture titanium mesh in humans: a cohort study. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res 23:600–61110.1111/cid.13025 ↗
95. Omar O, Engstrand T, Kihlstrom Burenstam Linder L, Aberg J, Shah FA, Palmquist A et al (2020) In situ bone regeneration of large cranial defects using synthetic ceramic implants with a tailored composition and design. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117:26660–2667110.1073/pnas.2007635117 ↗
96. Ghassemi T, Shahroodi A, Ebrahimzadeh MH, Mousavian A, Movaffagh J, Moradi A (2018) Current concepts in scaffolding for bone tissue engineering. Arch Bone Joint Surg 6:90
97. Huang YC, Kaigler D, Rice KG, Krebsbach PH, Mooney DJ (2005) Combined angiogenic and osteogenic factor delivery enhances bone marrow stromal cell-driven bone regeneration. J Bone Miner Res 20:848–85710.1359/JBMR.041226 ↗
98. Kolan KC, Huang Y-W, Semon JA, Leu MC (2020) 3D-printed biomimetic bioactive glass scaffolds for bone regeneration in rat calvarial defects. Int J Bioprint 6(2):82–9810.18063/ijb.v6i2.274 ↗
99. Bozo IY, Deev RV, Smirnov IV, Fedotov AY, Popov VK, Mironov AV et al (2020) 3D printed gene-activated octacalcium phosphate implants for large bone defects engineering. Int J Bioprint 6(3):93–10910.18063/ijb.v6i3.275 ↗
100. Kim W, Lee H, Ji Roh E, Bae An S, Han I-B, Hyung KG (2022) A multicellular bioprinted cell construct for vascularized bone tissue regeneration. Chem Eng J 431:13388210.1016/j.cej.2021.133882 ↗