Viewpoint: metallurgical aspects of powder bed metal additive manufacturing
Source abstract
Abstract
Metal additive manufacturing has emerged as a new manufacturing option for aerospace and biomedical applications. The many challenges that surround this new manufacturing technology fall into several different categories. The paper addresses one of these categories, the physical mechanisms that control the additive manufacturing process. Physical mechanisms control the effects of processing parameters on microstructures and properties of additively manufactured parts. Some mechanisms might not have been recognized, yet, and for those that are currently known, detailed quantitative predictions have to be established. The physical mechanisms of metal additive manufacturing are firmly grounded in metallurgy, branching into laser physics and the physics of granular materials. Powder bed additive manufacturing is described from the powder storage to post-processing and elements of metallurgy are highlighted that are relevant for the different aspects of the additive manufacturing process. These elements include the surface reactions on powder particles, the heating and melting behavior of the powder bed, solidification, and post-processing. This overview of the different metallurgical aspects to additive manufacturing is intended to help guide research efforts and it will also serve as a snapshot of the current understanding of powder bed additive manufacturing.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · High Entropy Alloys Studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (67)
Show source-provided references
1. Frazier WE (2014) Metal additive manufacturing: a review. J Mater Eng Perform 23:1917–192810.1007/s11665-014-0958-z ↗
2. Bertrand P, Bayle F, Combe C, Gœuriot P, Smurov I (2007) Ceramic components manufacturing by selective laser sintering. Appl Surf Sci 254:989–99210.1016/j.apsusc.2007.08.085 ↗
3. Gockel J, Beuth J (2013) Understanding Ti-6Al-4V microstructure control in additive manufacturing via process maps. Solid Freeform Fabr Proc Austin, TX Aug:666–675
4. Gaskell DR (2008) Introduction to the thermodynamics of materials. CRC Press, Boca Raton
5. Ellingham HJT (1944) Reducibility of oxides and sulphides in metallurgical processes. J Soc Chem Ind L 63:125–16010.1002/jctb.5000630501 ↗
6. Kubaschewski O, Hopkins BE (1962) Oxidation of metals and alloys. Butterworths, London
7. Birks N, Meier G, Pettit F (2009) Introduction to the high temperature oxidation of metals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
8. Henderson MA (2002) The interaction of water with solid surfaces: fundamental aspects revisited. Surf Sci Rep 46:1–30810.1016/S0167-5729(01)00020-6 ↗
9. Hodgson A, Haq S (2009) Water adsorption and the wetting of metal surfaces. Surf Sci Rep 64:381–45110.1016/j.surfrep.2009.07.001 ↗
10. Matei G, Claussen N, Hausner HH (1974) Influence of relative humidity on flow behavior of metal and ceramic powders. Mod Dev Powder Met 8:5–11
11. Mohandas T, Banerjee D, Kutumba Rao VV (1999) Fusion zone microstructure and porosity in electron beam welds of an alpha plus beta titanium alloy. Metall Mater Trans A 30A:789–79810.1007/s11661-999-1011-y ↗
12. Gouret N, Dour G, Miguet B, Ollivier E, Fortunier R (2004) Assessment of the origin of porosity in electron-beam-welded TA6V plates. Metall Mater Trans A 35A:879–88910.1007/s11661-004-0013-z ↗
13. Karde V, Panda S, Ghoroi C (2015) Surface modification to improve powder bulk behavior under humid conditions. Powder Tech 278:181–18810.1016/j.powtec.2015.03.025 ↗
14. Kwek JW, Ng WK, Tan CL, Chow PS, Tan RBH (2006) The effects of particle surface properties and storage condition on powder flow properties. In: AIChE Spring national meeting—5th world congress on particle technology, April 23, 2006–April 27, 2006, Orlando
15. Liew WYH (2006) The effect of relative humidity on the unlubricated wear of metals. Wear 260(7–8):720–72710.1016/j.wear.2005.04.011 ↗
16. Hogg R (2009) Mixing and segregation in powders: evaluation, mechanisms and processes. KONA Powder Part J 27:3–1710.14356/kona.2009005 ↗
17. Metcalfe G, Shattuck M (1996) Pattern formation during mixing and segregation of flowing granular material. Phys A 233:709–71710.1016/S0378-4371(96)00157-4 ↗
18. Slotwinski JA, Garboczi EJ, Stutzman PE, Ferraris CF, Watson SS, Peltz MA (2014) Characterization of metal powders used for additive manufacturing. J Res NIST 119:460–49310.6028/jres.119.018 ↗
19. Zhang C, Lindan PJ (2004) A density functional theory study of the coadsorption of water and oxygen on TiO2(110). J Chem Phys 121(8):3811–381510.1063/1.1775784 ↗
20. Von Allmen MF (1982) Fundamentals of energy deposition. In: Poate JM, Mayer JW (eds) Laser annealing of semiconductors. Academic Press, London, pp 43–7410.1016/B978-0-12-558820-1.50008-9 ↗
21. Von Allmen MF, Blatter A (1994) Laser-beam interactions with materials. Springer, Berlin
22. White CW, Peercy PS (1980) Laser and electron beam processing of materials. Academic Press, New-York
23. White CW, Aziz MJ (1987) Energy deposition, heat flow, and rapid solidification during pulsed-laser and electron-beam irradiation of materials. In: Rehn LE, Picraux ST, Wiedersich H (eds) Surface alloying by ion, electron, and laser beams. American Society of Metals, Metals Park, OH, pp 19–51
24. Ready JF (1978) Industrial applications of lasers. Academic Press, New-York
25. Slavin AJ, Arcas V, Greenhalgh CA, Irvine ER, Marshall DB (2002) Theoretical model for the thermal conductivity of a packed bed of solid spheroids in the presence of a static gas with no adjustable parameters except pressure and temperature. Int J Heat Mass Tran 45:4151–416110.1016/S0017-9310(02)00117-5 ↗
26. Schertz WW, Bischoff K (1969) Thermal and material transport in nonisothermal packed beds. AIChE J 15:597–60410.1002/aic.690150423 ↗
27. Bahrami M, Yovanovich MM, Culham JR (2006) Effective thermal conductivity of rough spherical packed beds. Int J Heat Mass Tran 49:3691–370110.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.02.021 ↗
28. Shapiro M, Dudko V, Royzen V, Krichevets Y, Lekhtmakher S, Grozubinsky V, Shapira M, Brill M (2004) Characterization of powder beds by thermal conductivity: effect of gas pressure on the thermal resistance of particle contact points. Part Part Syst Charact 21:268–27510.1002/ppsc.200400943 ↗
29. Huethorst JAM, Leenaars AFM (1990) A new model for the effective thermal conductivity of packed beds of solid spheroids alumina in helium. Colloid Surface A 50:101–11110.1016/0166-6622(90)80256-4 ↗
30. Kikuchi S (2001) Numerical analysis model for thermal conductivities of packed beds with high solid to gas conductivity ratio. Int J Heat Mass Trans 44:1213–122110.1016/S0017-9310(00)00167-8 ↗
31. Körner C, Bauereiss A, Attar E (2013) Fundamental consolidation mechanisms during selective beam melting of powders. Model Simul Mater Sc 21:1–1810.1088/0965-0393/21/8/085011 ↗
32. Landau LE, Lifshitz EM (1959) Chapter VII—surface phenomena. In: Fluid mechanics, vol 6 of a theoretical course in physics. Pergamon-Press Ltd., London, pp 230–232
33. Wunderlich R (2008) Surface tension and viscosity of industrial Ti-alloys measured by the oscillating drop method. High Temp Mater Processes (London) 27(6):401–412
34. Li JJZ, Johnson WL, Rhim W-K (2006) Thermodynamic expansion of Ti-6Al-4V measured by electrostatic levitation. Apply Phys Lett 89:111913–11191710.1063/1.2349840 ↗
35. Denesuk M, Smith GL, Zelinski BJJ, Kreidl NJ, Uhlman DR (1993) Capillary penetration of liquids into porous materials. J Colloid Interf Sci 158:114–12010.1006/jcis.1993.1235 ↗
36. Lavi B, Marmur A (2006) The capillary race: optimal surface tensions for fastest penetration. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 282–283:263–27110.1016/j.colsurfa.2006.01.033 ↗
37. Singh-Miller NE, Marzari N (2009) Surface energies, work functions, and surface relaxations of low-index metallic surfaces from first principles. Phys Rev B 80(23):235407–23541610.1103/PhysRevB.80.235407 ↗
38. Hafner J (2008) Ab-initio simulations of materials using VASP: density-functional theory and beyond. J Comput Chem 29(13):82–11610.1002/jcc.21057 ↗
39. Sharma V, Alpay P (in preparation)
40. Reuter K, Scheffler M (2004) Oxide formation at the surface of late 4d transition metals: insights from first-principles atomistic thermodynamics. Appl Phys A 78(6):793–79810.1007/s00339-003-2433-9 ↗
41. Nakamura H, Kawahito Y, Nishimoto K, Katayama S (2015) Elucidation of melt flows and spatter formation mechanisms during high power laser welding of pure titanium. J Laser Appl 27:032012-03201110.2351/1.4922383 ↗
42. Bäuerle D (2000) Laser processing and chemistry. Springer, Berlin10.1007/978-3-662-04074-4 ↗
43. Simonelli M, Tuck C, Aboulkhair N, Maskery I, Ashcroft I, Wildman R, Hague R (2015) A study on the laser spatter and the oxidation reactions during selective laser melting of 316L stainless steel, Al-Si10-Mg, and Ti-6Al-4V. Metall and Mat Trans A 46:3842–385110.1007/s11661-015-2882-8 ↗
44. Rabin BH, Smolik GR, Korth GE (1990) Characterization of entrapped gases in rapidly solidified powders. Mater Sci Eng A A124:1–710.1016/0921-5093(90)90328-Z ↗
45. Matsunawa A, Kim J-D, Seto N, Mizutani M, Katayama S (1998) Dynamics of keyhole and molten pool in laser welding. J Laser Appl 10:247–25210.2351/1.521858 ↗
46. Ng GKL, Jarfors AEW, Bi G, Zheng HY (2009) Porosity formation and gas bubble retention in laser metal deposition. Appl Phys A 97:641–64910.1007/s00339-009-5266-3 ↗
47. Huang JL, Warnken N, Gebelin J-M, Strangwood M, Reed RC (2012) On the mechanism of porosity formation during welding of titanium alloys. Acta Mater 60:3215–322510.1016/j.actamat.2012.02.035 ↗
48. Kou S (2002) Welding Metallurgy, 2nd edn. Wiley Interscience, New-York, NY10.1002/0471434027 ↗
49. Follstaedt DM, Peercy PS, Perepezko JH (1986) Phase selection during pulsed laser annealing of manganese. Appl Phys Lett 48:338–34010.1063/1.96544 ↗
50. Shneidman VA, Weinberg MC (1996) Crystallization of rapidly heated amorphous metals. J Non-Cryst Solids 194:145–15410.1016/0022-3093(95)00490-4 ↗
51. CES Edupack 2014. Granta
52. Sih SS, Barlow JW (2004) The prediction of the emissivity and thermal conductivity of powder beds. Particul Sci Technol 22:427–44010.1080/02726350490501682 ↗
53. Brice C, Dennis N (2015) Cooling rate determination in additively manufactured aluminum alloy 2219. Met Mater Trans A 46A:2304–230810.1007/s11661-015-2775-x ↗
54. Liebermann HH (ed) (1993) Rapidly solidified alloys. Marcel Dekker, New-York
55. Starke E Jr, Fine ME (eds) (1986) Rapidly solidified powder aluminum alloys. ASTM, West Conshohocken
56. International Conference on Rapidly Quenched and Metastable Materials. Triannial conference series since 1970
57. Boettinger WJ, Perepezko JH (1993) Fundamentals of solidification at high rates. In: Liebermann HH (ed) Rapidly solidified alloys. Marcel Dekker, New-York
58. Cantor B, Kim WP, Bewlay BP, Gillen AG (1991) Microstructure-cooling rate correlations in melt-spun alloys. J Mater Sci 26:1266–127610.1007/BF00544465 ↗
59. Perepezko JH, LeBeau SE (1982) Nucleation of Al during solidification. In: Pampillo CA, Biloni H, Mondolfo L, Sacchi F (eds) Aluminum Transformation Technology and its Application. ASM, Metals Park, OH, pp 309–346
60. Casavola C, Campanelli SL, Pappalettere C (2009) Preliminary investigation on distribution of residual stress generated by the selective laser melting process. J Strain Anal Eng 44:93–10410.1243/03093247JSA464 ↗
61. Mercelis P, Kruth JP (2006) Residual stresses in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyping J 12:254–26510.1108/13552540610707013 ↗
62. Parry L, Ashcroft I, Bracket D, Wildman RD (2015) Investigation of residual stresses in selective laser melting. Trans Tech Publ 627:129–132
63. Yadroitsev I, Yadroitsava I (2015) Evaluation of residual stress in stainless steel 316L and Ti6Al4V samples produced by selective laser melting. Virtual Phys Prototyp. doi: 10.1080/17452759.2015.1026045
64. Zaeh MF, Branner G (2010) Investigations on residual stresses and deformations in selective laser melting. Prod Eng 4:35–4510.1007/s11740-009-0192-y ↗
65. Bocanergra-Bernal MH (2004) Review hot isostatic pressing (HIP) technology and its applications to metals and ceramics. J Mater Sci 39:6399–642010.1023/B:JMSC.0000044878.11441.90 ↗
66. Murr LE (2015) Metallurgy of additive manufacturing: examples from electron-beam melting. Addit Manuf 5:40–5310.1016/j.addma.2014.12.002 ↗
67. Liu F, Lin X, Yang G, Song M, Chen J, Huang W (2011) Microstructure and residual stress of laser rapid formed Inconel 718 nickel-base superalloy. Opt Laser Technol 43:208–21310.1016/j.optlastec.2010.06.015 ↗