A review of non-destructive techniques used for mechanical damage assessment in polymer composites
Source abstract
Abstract
Polymer composite materials are being increasingly used in primary load-bearing structures in several advanced industrial fields such as aerospace vessels, railway wagons and mega-scaled wind turbines where detection of subcritical damage initiation can significantly reduce safety issues and maintenance costs. It is therefore crucial to inspect these composite structures in order to assess their structural health and to ensure their integrity. Non-destructive testing techniques (NDT) are used for this purpose, making it possible to monitor mechanical damage of composite materials under in situ or ex situ service conditions. This paper reviews the capabilities of the most common NDT techniques used to inspect the integrity of composite materials. Each technique has a detection potential and cannot allow a full diagnosis of the mechanical damage state of the material. Thus, depending on the occurring damage mechanism and the conditions of use, one technique will be preferred over another, or several techniques should be combined to improve the diagnosis of the damage state of the structures.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Ultrasonics and Acoustic Wave Propagation · Non-Destructive Testing Techniques · Structural Health Monitoring Techniques
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Passipoularidis VA, Philippidis TP, Brondsted P (2011) Fatigue life prediction in composites using progressive damage modelling under block and spectrum loading. Int J Fatigue 33(2):132–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2010.07.01110.1016/j.ijfatigue.2010.07.011 ↗
2. Post NL, Case SW, Lesko JJ (2008) Modeling the variable amplitude fatigue of composite materials: a review and evaluation of the state of the art for spectrum loading. Int J Fatigue 30(12):2064–2086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2008.07.00210.1016/j.ijfatigue.2008.07.002 ↗
3. Su Z, Ye L, Lu Y (2006) Guided Lamb waves for identification of damage in composite structures: a review. J Sound Vib 295(3–5):753–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2006.01.02010.1016/j.jsv.2006.01.020 ↗
4. Hung Y, Chen YS, Ng S, Liu L, Huang Y, Luk B, Ip R, Wu C, Chung P (2009) Review and comparison of shearography and active thermography for nondestructive evaluation. Mater Sci Eng R Rep 64(5):73–11210.1016/j.mser.2008.11.001 ↗
5. Francis D, Tatam R, Groves R (2010) Shearography technology and applications: a review. Meas Sci Technol 21(10):102–13110.1088/0957-0233/21/10/102001 ↗
6. Zhu Y-K, Tian G-Y, Lu R-S, Zhang H (2011) A review of optical NDT technologies. Sensors 11(8):7773–779810.3390/s110807773 ↗
7. Jolly M, Prabhakar A, Sturzu B, Hollstein K, Singh R, Thomas S, Foote P, Shaw A (2015) Review of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques and their applicability to thick walled composites. Procedia CIRP 38:129–13610.1016/j.procir.2015.07.043 ↗
8. Li D, Ho S-CM, Song G, Ren L, Li H (2015) A review of damage detection methods for wind turbine blades. Smart Mater Struct 24(3):33–5710.1088/0964-1726/24/3/033001 ↗
9. Mitra M, Gopalakrishnan S (2016) Guided wave based structural health monitoring: a review. Smart Mater Struct 25(5):53–8010.1088/0964-1726/25/5/053001 ↗
10. Raghavan A, Cesnik CE (2007) Review of guided-wave structural health monitoring. Shock Vib Dig 39(2):91–11610.1177/0583102406075428 ↗
11. Sun Z, Rocha B, Wu K-T, Mrad N (2013) A methodological review of piezoelectric based acoustic wave generation and detection techniques for structural health monitoring. Int J Aerosp Eng 2013:66–6810.1155/2013/928627 ↗
12. Smith R, Xie N, Hallett S (2016) Non-destrucitve characterisation of composite microstructures. JEC Compos Mag 109:59–61
13. Hild F, Bouterf A, Roux S (2015) Damage measurements via DIC. Int J Fract 191(1–2):77–10510.1007/s10704-015-0004-7 ↗
14. Gholizadeh S (2016) A review of non-destructive testing methods of composite materials. Procedia Struct Integr 1:50–5710.1016/j.prostr.2016.02.008 ↗
15. Awaja F, Zhang S, Tripathi M, Nikiforov A, Pugno N (2016) Cracks, microcracks and fracture in polymer structures: formation, detection, autonomic repair. Prog Mater Sci 83:536–57310.1016/j.pmatsci.2016.07.007 ↗
16. Böhm R, Hufenbach W (2010) Experimentally based strategy for damage analysis of textile-reinforced composites under static loading. Compos Sci Technol 70(9):1330–1337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.04.00810.1016/j.compscitech.2010.04.008 ↗
17. Ettouney M, Alampalli S (2013) Review of infrastructure health in civil engineering, volume II: applications and management. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, Reston, pp 248–277
18. Peng T, Liu Y, Saxena A, Goebel K (2015) In-situ fatigue life prognosis for composite laminates based on stiffness degradation. Compos Struct 132:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.05.00610.1016/j.compstruct.2015.05.006 ↗
19. Montesano J, Fawaz Z, Bougherara H (2015) Non-destructive assessment of the fatigue strength and damage progression of satin woven fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites. Compos Part B Eng 71:122–13010.1016/j.compositesb.2014.11.005 ↗
20. Arif MF, Saintier N, Meraghni F, Fitoussi J, Chemisky Y, Robert G (2014) Multiscale fatigue damage characterization in short glass fiber reinforced polyamide-66. Compos Part B Eng 61:55–6510.1016/j.compositesb.2014.01.019 ↗
21. Rolland H, Saintier N, Robert G (2016) Damage mechanisms in short glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic during in situ microtomography tensile tests. Compos Part B Eng 90:365–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.12.02110.1016/j.compositesb.2015.12.021 ↗
22. Yu B, Blanc R, Soutis C, Withers P (2016) Evolution of damage during the fatigue of 3D woven glass-fibre reinforced composites subjected to tension–tension loading observed by time-lapse X-ray tomography. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 82:279–29010.1016/j.compositesa.2015.09.001 ↗
23. Berthelot J, Rhazi J (1990) Acoustic emission in carbon fibre composites. Compos Sci Technol 37(4):411–42810.1016/0266-3538(90)90012-T ↗
24. Kordatos EZ, Dassios KG, Aggelis DG, Matikas TE (2013) Rapid evaluation of the fatigue limit in composites using infrared lock-in thermography and acoustic emission. Mech Res Commun 54:14–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechrescom.2013.09.00510.1016/j.mechrescom.2013.09.005 ↗
25. Chou HY, Mouritz AP, Bannister MK, Bunsell AR (2015) Acoustic emission analysis of composite pressure vessels under constant and cyclic pressure. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 70:111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2014.11.02710.1016/j.compositesa.2014.11.027 ↗
26. Masmoudi S, El Mahi A, Turki S (2016) Fatigue behaviour and structural health monitoring by acoustic emission of E-glass/epoxy laminates with piezoelectric implant. Appl Acoust 108:50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2015.10.02410.1016/j.apacoust.2015.10.024 ↗
27. Momon S, Moevus M, Godin N, R’Mili M, Reynaud P, Fantozzi G, Fayolle G (2010) Acoustic emission and lifetime prediction during static fatigue tests on ceramic-matrix-composite at high temperature under air. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 41(7):913–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2010.03.00810.1016/j.compositesa.2010.03.008 ↗
28. Huguet S, Godin N, Gaertner R, Salmon L, Villard D (2002) Use of acoustic emission to identify damage modes in glass fibre reinforced polyester. Compos Sci Technol 62(10):1433–144410.1016/S0266-3538(02)00087-8 ↗
29. Doan DD, Ramasso E, Placet V, Zhang S, Boubakar L, Zerhouni N (2015) An unsupervised pattern recognition approach for AE data originating from fatigue tests on polymer–composite materials. Mech Syst Signal Process 64:465–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.04.01110.1016/j.ymssp.2015.04.011 ↗
30. Skawinski O, Hulot P, Binétruy C, Rasche C (2008) Structural integrity evaluation of CNG composite cylinders by acoustic emission monitoring. J Acoust Emiss 26:120–131
31. Krawczak P, Pabiot J (1994) Acoustic emission applied to glass fibre/organic thermosetting matrix interface characterization. Appl Compos Mater 1(5):373–38610.1007/BF00568042 ↗
32. Calabrese L, Campanella G, Proverbio E (2012) Noise removal by cluster analysis after long time AE corrosion monitoring of steel reinforcement in concrete. Constr Build Mater 34:362–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.04610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.046 ↗
33. Godin N, Huguet S, Gaertner R (2005) Integration of the Kohonen’s self-organising map and k-means algorithm for the segmentation of the AE data collected during tensile tests on cross-ply composites. NDT and E Int 38(4):299–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2004.09.00610.1016/j.ndteint.2004.09.006 ↗
34. Pomponi E, Vinogradov A (2013) A real-time approach to acoustic emission clustering. Mech Syst Signal Process 40(2):791–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2013.03.01710.1016/j.ymssp.2013.03.017 ↗
35. Kharrat M, Placet V, Ramasso E, Boubakar ML (2016) Influence of damage accumulation under fatigue loading on the AE-based health assessment of composite materials: wave distortion and AE-features evolution as a function of damage level. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.03.02010.1016/j.compositesa.2016.03.020 ↗
36. Marec A, Thomas JH, El Guerjouma R (2008) Damage characterization of polymer-based composite materials: multivariable analysis and wavelet transform for clustering acoustic emission data. Mech Syst Signal Process 22(6):1441–1464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2007.11.02910.1016/j.ymssp.2007.11.029 ↗
37. Al-Jumaili SK, Holford KM, Eaton MJ, Pullin R (2015) Parameter correction technique (PCT): a novel method for acoustic emission characterisation in large-scale composites. Compos Part B Eng 75:336–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.01.04410.1016/j.compositesb.2015.01.044 ↗
38. Crivelli D, Guagliano M, Eaton M, Pearson M, Al-Jumaili S, Holford K, Pullin R (2015) Localisation and identification of fatigue matrix cracking and delamination in a carbon fibre panel by acoustic emission. Compos Part B Eng 74:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.12.03210.1016/j.compositesb.2014.12.032 ↗
39. Kinra VK, Ganpatye AS, Maslov K (2006) Ultrasonic ply-by-ply detection of matrix cracks in laminated composites. J Nondestruct Eval 25(1):37–4910.1007/s10921-006-0001-x ↗
40. Harizi W, Chaki S, Bourse G, Ourak M (2015) Mechanical damage characterization of glass fiber-reinforced polymer laminates by ultrasonic maps. Compos Part B Eng 70:131–13710.1016/j.compositesb.2014.11.014 ↗
41. Lawrence CW, Briggs GAD, Scruby CB, Davies JRR (1993) Acoustic microscopy of ceramic-fibre composites. J Mater Sci 28(13):3635–3644. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf0115984710.1007/BF01159847 ↗
42. Kimpara I, Takehana M, Suzuki T (1978) Analysis of thickness-direction ultrasonic wave propagation of fiberglass reinforced plastics laminates. In: ICCM/2; proceedings of the second international conference on composite materials, Toronto, Canada, April 16–20, pp 1104–1122
43. Borum KK (2006) Evaluation of the quality of thick fibre composites using immersion and air-coupled ultrasonic techniques. In: Proceedings of European conference on non-destructive testing, Berlin, 25–29/09 2006
44. Hawkins G, Sheaffer P, Johnson E (1991) NDE of thick composites in the aerospace industry—an overview. In: Thompson DO, Chimenti DE (eds) Review of progress in quantitative nondestructive evaluation. Springer, pp 1591–159710.1007/978-1-4615-3742-7_59 ↗
45. Frankle RS, Rose DN (1995) Flexible ultrasonic array system for inspecting thick composite structures. In: Proceedings of nondestructive evaluation of aging infrastructure, Oakland, USA, International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp 51–5910.1117/12.212558 ↗
46. Li C, Pain D, Wilcox PD, Drinkwater BW (2013) Imaging composite material using ultrasonic arrays. NDT and E Int 53:8–1710.1016/j.ndteint.2012.07.006 ↗
47. Hsu DK, Barnard DJ (2006) Inspecting composites with airborne ultrasound: through thick and thin. In: Proceedings of quantitative nondestructive evaluation, vol 1. AIP Publishing, pp 991–99810.1063/1.2184633 ↗
48. Revel GM, Pandarese G, Cavuto A (2013) Advanced ultrasonic non-destructive testing for damage detection on thick and curved composite elements for constructions. J Sandw Struct Mater 15(1):5–2410.1177/1099636212456861 ↗
49. Toyama N, Yashiro S, Takatsubo J, Okabe T (2005) Stiffness evaluation and damage identification in composite beam under tension using Lamb waves. Acta Mater 53(16):4389–4397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2005.05.04310.1016/j.actamat.2005.05.043 ↗
50. Ramadas C, Padiyar J, Balasubramaniam K, Joshi M, Krishnamurthy C (2011) Lamb wave based ultrasonic imaging of interface delamination in a composite T-joint. NDT and E Int 44(6):523–53010.1016/j.ndteint.2011.05.009 ↗
51. Ramadas C, Hood A, Khan I, Balasubramaniam K, Joshi M (2013) Transmission and reflection of the fundamental Lamb modes in a metallic plate with a semi-infinite horizontal crack. Ultrasonics 53(3):773–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultras.2012.11.00410.1016/j.ultras.2012.11.004 ↗
52. Rheinfurth M, Schmidt F, Döring D, Solodov I, Busse G, Horst P (2011) Air-coupled guided waves combined with thermography for monitoring fatigue in biaxially loaded composite tubes. Compos Sci Technol 71(5):600–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.12.01210.1016/j.compscitech.2010.12.012 ↗
53. Nagy PB (1998) Fatigue damage assessment by nonlinear ultrasonic materials characterization. Ultrasonics 36(1–5):375–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-624X(97)00040-110.1016/S0041-624X(97)00040-1 ↗
54. Koen E, Den Van, Abeele A (1996) Elastic pulsed wave propagation in media with second-or higher-order nonlinearity. Part I. Theoretical framework. J Acoust Soc Am 99(6):3334–334510.1121/1.414890 ↗
55. Van Den Abeele KE, Sutin A, Carmeliet J, Johnson PA (2001) Micro-damage diagnostics using nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy (NEWS). NDT and E Int 34(4):239–24810.1016/S0963-8695(00)00064-5 ↗
56. Solodov IY, Krohn N, Busse G (2002) CAN: an example of nonclassical acoustic nonlinearity in solids. Ultrasonics 40(1):621–62510.1016/S0041-624X(02)00186-5 ↗
57. Donskoy D, Sutin A, Ekimov A (2001) Nonlinear acoustic interaction on contact interfaces and its use for nondestructive testing. NDT and E Int 34(4):231–23810.1016/S0963-8695(00)00063-3 ↗
58. Van Den Abeele K-A, Johnson PA, Sutin A (2000) Nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy (NEWS) techniques to discern material damage, part I: nonlinear wave modulation spectroscopy (NWMS). Res Nondestr Eval 12(1):17–3010.1080/09349840008968159 ↗
59. Klepka A, Staszewski W, Jenal R, Szwedo M, Iwaniec J, Uhl T (2012) Nonlinear acoustics for fatigue crack detection–experimental investigations of vibro-acoustic wave modulations. Struct Health Monit 11(2):197–21110.1177/1475921711414236 ↗
60. Klepka A, Pieczonka L, Staszewski W, Aymerich F (2014) Impact damage detection in laminated composites by non-linear vibro-acoustic wave modulations. Compos Part B Eng 65:99–10810.1016/j.compositesb.2013.11.003 ↗
61. Aymerich F, Staszewski W (2010) Experimental study of impact-damage detection in composite laminates using a cross-modulation vibro-acoustic technique. Struct Health Monit 9(6):541–55310.1177/1475921710365433 ↗
62. Zaitsev VY, Gusev V, Castagnede B (2002) Observation of the “Luxemburg–Gorky effect” for elastic waves. Ultrasonics 40(1):627–63110.1016/S0041-624X(02)00187-7 ↗
63. Korshak B, Solodov IY, Ballad E (2002) DC effects, sub-harmonics, stochasticity and “memory” for contact acoustic non-linearity. Ultrasonics 40(1):707–71310.1016/S0041-624X(02)00241-X ↗
64. Ulrich T, Sutin A, Guyer R, Johnson P (2008) Time reversal and non-linear elastic wave spectroscopy (TR NEWS) techniques. Int J Non-Linear Mech 43(3):209–21610.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2007.12.017 ↗
65. Goursolle T, Dos Santos S, Matar OB, Calle S (2008) Non-linear based time reversal acoustic applied to crack detection: Simulations and experiments. Int J Non-Linear Mech 43(3):170–17710.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2007.12.008 ↗
66. Meo M, Zumpano G (2005) Nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy identification of impact damage on a sandwich plate. Compos Struct 71(3):469–47410.1016/j.compstruct.2005.09.027 ↗
67. Solodov I, Bai J, Bekgulyan S, Busse G (2011) A local defect resonance to enhance acoustic wave-defect interaction in ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation. Appl Phys Lett 99(21):211–21310.1063/1.3663872 ↗
68. Solodov I (2014) Resonant acoustic nonlinearity of defects for highly-efficient nonlinear NDE. J Nondestr Eval 33(2):252–26210.1007/s10921-014-0229-9 ↗
69. Delrue S, Tabatabaeipour M, Hettler J, Van Den Abeele K (2015) Non-destructive evaluation of kissing bonds using local defect resonance (LDR) spectroscopy: a simulation study. Phys Procedia 70(Supplement C):648–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2015.08.06710.1016/j.phpro.2015.08.067 ↗
70. Post W, Kersemans M, Solodov I, Van Den Abeele K, García SJ, van der Zwaag S (2017) Non-destructive monitoring of delamination healing of a CFRP composite with a thermoplastic ionomer interlayer. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 101(Supplement C):243–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2017.06.01810.1016/j.compositesa.2017.06.018 ↗
71. Meo M, Polimeno U, Zumpano G (2008) Detecting damage in composite material using nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy methods. Appl Compos Mater 15(3):115–12610.1007/s10443-008-9061-7 ↗
72. Aymerich F, Staszewski W (2010) Impact damage detection in composite laminates using nonlinear acoustics. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 41(9):1084–109210.1016/j.compositesa.2009.09.004 ↗
73. Benaarbia A, Chrysochoos A, Robert G (2014) Kinetics of stored and dissipated energies associated with cyclic loadings of dry polyamide 6.6 specimens. Polym Test 34:155–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2014.01.00910.1016/j.polymertesting.2014.01.009 ↗
74. Mahal M, Blanksvärd T, Täljsten B, Sas G (2015) Using digital image correlation to evaluate fatigue behavior of strengthened reinforced concrete beams. Eng Struct 105:277–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.10.01710.1016/j.engstruct.2015.10.017 ↗
75. Tableau N, Aboura Z, Khellil K, Marcin L, Bouillon F (2017) Accurate measurement of in-plane and out-of-plane shear moduli on 3D woven SiC-SiBC material. Compos Struct 172(Supplement C):319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.12.03510.1016/j.compstruct.2016.12.035 ↗
76. Franz T (2001) Photoelastic study of the mechanic behaviour of orthotropic composite plates subjected to impact. Compos Struct 54(2–3):169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-8223(01)00086-110.1016/S0263-8223(01)00086-1 ↗
77. Chen B, Basaran C (2012) Far-field modeling of Moiré interferometry using scalar diffraction theory. Opt Lasers Eng 50(8):1168–1176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2011.08.00710.1016/j.optlaseng.2011.08.007 ↗
78. Lammering R (2010) Observation of piezoelectrically induced Lamb wave propagation in thin plates by use of speckle interferometry. Exp Mech 50(3):377–38710.1007/s11340-009-9233-x ↗
79. Ayadi A, Nouri H, Guessasma S, Roger F (2016) Large-scale X-Ray microtomography analysis of fiber orientation in weld line of short glass fiber reinforced thermoplastic and related elasticity behavior. Macromol Mater Eng 301(8):907–92110.1002/mame.201500463 ↗
80. Aparna ML, Chaitanya G, Srinivas K, Rao JA (2015) Fatigue testing of continuous GFRP composites using digital image correlation (DIC) technique: a review. Mater Today Proc 2(4–5):3125–3131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2015.07.27510.1016/j.matpr.2015.07.275 ↗
81. Comer AJ, Katnam KB, Stanley WF, Young TM (2013) Characterising the behaviour of composite single lap bonded joints using digital image correlation. Int J Adhes Adhes 40:215–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2012.08.01010.1016/j.ijadhadh.2012.08.010 ↗
82. Brynk T, Molak RM, Janiszewska M, Pakiela Z (2012) Digital image correlation measurements as a tool of composites deformation description. Comput Mater Sci 64:157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2012.04.03410.1016/j.commatsci.2012.04.034 ↗
83. Crupi V, Guglielmino E, Risitano G, Tavilla F (2015) Experimental analyses of SFRP material under static and fatigue loading by means of thermographic and DIC techniques. Compos Part B Eng 77:268–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.03.05210.1016/j.compositesb.2015.03.052 ↗
84. Giancane S, Panella FW, Nobile R, Dattoma V (2010) Fatigue damage evolution of fiber reinforced composites with digital image correlation analysis. Procedia Eng 2(1):1307–1315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2010.03.14210.1016/j.proeng.2010.03.142 ↗
85. Montesano J, Selezneva M, Levesque M, Fawaz Z (2015) Modeling fatigue damage evolution in polymer matrix composite structures and validation using in situ digital image correlation. Compos Struct 125:354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.02.03510.1016/j.compstruct.2015.02.035 ↗
86. Rolland H, Saintier N, Wilson P, Merzeau J, Robert G (2017) In situ X-ray tomography investigation on damage mechanisms in short glass fibre reinforced thermoplastics: effects of fibre orientation and relative humidity. Compos Part B Eng 109:170–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.10.04310.1016/j.compositesb.2016.10.043 ↗
87. Prakash R (1980) Non-destructive testing of composites. Composites 11(4):217–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4361(80)90428-010.1016/0010-4361(80)90428-0 ↗
88. Guild F, Vrellos N, Drinkwater B, Balhi N, Ogin S, Smith P (2006) Intra-laminar cracking in CFRP laminates: observations and modelling. J Mater Sci 41(20):6599–6609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0199-010.1007/s10853-006-0199-0 ↗
89. Ataş A, Soutis C (2013) Subcritical damage mechanisms of bolted joints in CFRP composite laminates. Compos Part B Eng 54:20–2710.1016/j.compositesb.2013.04.071 ↗
90. Scott AE, Mavrogordato M, Wright P, Sinclair I, Spearing SM (2011) In situ fibre fracture measurement in carbon–epoxy laminates using high resolution computed tomography. Compos Sci Technol 71(12):1471–1477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2011.06.00410.1016/j.compscitech.2011.06.004 ↗
91. Garcea SC, Sinclair I, Spearing SM (2015) In situ synchrotron tomographic evaluation of the effect of toughening strategies on fatigue micromechanisms in carbon fibre reinforced polymers. Compos Sci Technol 109(Supplement C):32–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2015.01.01210.1016/j.compscitech.2015.01.012 ↗
92. Garcea SC, Mavrogordato MN, Scott AE, Sinclair I, Spearing SM (2014) Fatigue micromechanism characterisation in carbon fibre reinforced polymers using synchrotron radiation computed tomography. Compos Sci Technol 99:23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2014.05.00610.1016/j.compscitech.2014.05.006 ↗
93. Patterson BM, Escobedo-Diaz JP, Dennis-Koller D, Cerreta E (2012) Dimensional quantification of embedded voids or objects in three dimensions using X-ray tomography. Microsc Microanal 18(02):390–39810.1017/S1431927611012554 ↗
94. Sket F, Enfedaque A, Alton C, González C, Molina-Aldareguia JM, Llorca J (2014) Automatic quantification of matrix cracking and fiber rotation by X-ray computed tomography in shear-deformed carbon fiber-reinforced laminates. Compos Sci Technol 90(Supplement C):129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2013.10.02210.1016/j.compscitech.2013.10.022 ↗
95. Cosmi F, Bernasconi A (2013) Micro-CT investigation on fatigue damage evolution in short fibre reinforced polymers. Compos Sci Technol 79:70–7610.1016/j.compscitech.2013.02.008 ↗
96. Cosmi F, Ravalico C (2015) Threshold identification for micro-tomographic damage characterisation in a short-fibre-reinforced polymer. Strain 51(3):171–17910.1111/str.12130 ↗
97. Yu B, Bradley R, Soutis C, Withers P (2016) A comparison of different approaches for imaging cracks in composites by X-ray microtomography. Philos Trans R Soc A 374(2071):37–5210.1098/rsta.2016.0037 ↗
98. Meola C, Carlomagno GM (2014) Infrared thermography to evaluate impact damage in glass/epoxy with manufacturing defects. Int J Impact Eng 67:1–1110.1016/j.ijimpeng.2013.12.010 ↗
99. Colombo C, Vergani L, Burman M (2012) Static and fatigue characterisation of new basalt fibre reinforced composites. Compos Struct 94(3):1165–117410.1016/j.compstruct.2011.10.007 ↗
100. La Rosa G, Risitano A (2000) Thermographic methodology for rapid determination of the fatigue limit of materials and mechanical components. Int J Fatigue 22(1):65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-1123(99)00088-210.1016/S0142-1123(99)00088-2 ↗