Electroless Metallization of the Elements: Survey and Progress

The electroless plating of metals and their alloys, oxides, and chalcogenides represents a critically important technology for the automotive, aerospace, machine tools, and, especially, the electronics industries. Since the initial efforts involving the plating of industrially important metals, such as Ni, Co, Cu, Ag, and Au, in the mid-20th century, the process has evolved to encompass a growing number of elements. At the same time, this expansion in the palette of accessible metals has enabled progress in these industries and evoked new nonconventional applications. In this review, we collect and survey available electroless processes in aqueous and organic solvent systems for each element organized according to position in the Periodic Table as a resource for the reader. Examples illustrating progress in the field are presented and are described in sufficient detail to be useful and understandable for both the expert and nonexpert. Given the historical importance of electronics as a driver for development of electroless processes, examples are electronics-related where possible. However, we strive to also include examples of applications in nontraditional fields to provide the reader with a sense of generality available for electroless methods. The review closes with an outlook for the field and a challenge to scientists and engineers to adapt electroless processes for new applications to continue the growth of the field.