Paradoxes of heterostructured materials

1. E.O. Hall, The deformation and ageing of mild steel: III. Discussion of results. Proc. Phys. Soc. London Sect. B 64, 747–753 (1951). https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/64/9/30310.1088/0370-1301/64/9/303 ↗

2. N.J. Petch, The cleavage strength of polycrystals. J. Iron Steel Inst. 174, 25–28 (1953)

3. R.W. Armstrong, F.J. Zerilli, Dislocation mechanics aspects of plastic instability and shear banding. Mech. Mater. 17, 319–327 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-6636(94)90069-810.1016/0167-6636(94)90069-8 ↗

4. R.W. Armstrong, Engineering science aspects of the Hall–Petch relation. Acta Mech. 225, 1013–1028 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-013-1048-210.1007/s00707-013-1048-2 ↗

5. M.F. Ashby, The deformation of plastically non-homogeneous materials. Philos. Mag. A J. Theor. Exp. Appl. Phys. 21, 399–424 (1970). https://doi.org/10.1080/1478643700823842610.1080/14786437008238426 ↗

6. F.R.N. Nabarro, Z.S. Basinski, D.B. Holt, The plasticity of pure single crystals. Adv. Phys. 13, 193–323 (1964). https://doi.org/10.1080/0001873640010103110.1080/00018736400101031 ↗

7. G.I. Taylor, The mechanism of plastic deformation of crystals. Part I—Theoretical. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 145, 362–387 (1934). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1934.010610.1098/rspa.1934.0106 ↗

8. S.N. Naik, The Hall–Petch and inverse Hall–Petch relations and the hardness of nanocrystalline metals. J. Mater. Sci. 55, 2661–2681 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04160-w10.1007/s10853-019-04160-w ↗

9. C.S. Pande, K.P. Cooper, Nanomechanics of Hall–Petch relationship in nanocrystalline materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 54, 689–706 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2009.03.00810.1016/j.pmatsci.2009.03.008 ↗

10. K.A. Padmanabhan, S. Sripathi, H. Hahn, H. Gleiter, Inverse Hall–Petch effect in quasi- and nanocrystalline materials. Mater. Lett. 133, 151–154 (2014)10.1016/j.matlet.2014.06.153 ↗

11. J.H. Schneibel, M. Heilmaier, Hall–Petch breakdown at elevated temperatures. Mater. Trans. 55, 44–51 (2015). https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.MA20130910.2320/matertrans.MA201309 ↗

12. H. Pan, Y. He, X. Zhang, Interactions between dislocations and boundaries during deformation. Materials 14, 1–48 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1404101210.3390/ma14041012 ↗

13. R.W. Armstrong, Q. Li, Dislocation mechanics of high-rate deformations. Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 46, 4438–4453 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-015-2779-610.1007/s11661-015-2779-6 ↗

14. R.W. Armstrong, S.M. Walley, High strain rate properties of metals and alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 53, 105–128 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1179/174328008X27779510.1179/174328008X277795 ↗

15. S. Sin, Z. Hoe, Z. Wu, Y. Wei, The inverse Hall–Petch relation in nanocrystalline metals: a discrete dislocation dynamics analysis. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 88, 252–266 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmps.2015.12.01210.1016/j.jmps.2015.12.012 ↗

16. Z.D. Sha, S.S. Quek, Q.X. Pei, Z.S. Liu, T.J. Wang, V.B. Shenoy, Y.W. Zhang, Inverse pseudo Hall–Petch relation in polycrystalline graphene. Sci. Rep. 4, 7–12 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep0599110.1038/srep05991 ↗

17. M.A. Meyers, O. Vöhringer, V.A. Lubarda, The onset of twinning in metals: a constitutive description. Acta Mater. 49, 4025–4039 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(01)00300-710.1016/S1359-6454(01)00300-7 ↗

18. Y. Zhu, K. Ameyama, P.M. Anderson, I.J. Beyerlein, H. Gao, H.S. Kim, E. Lavernia, S. Mathaudhu, H. Mughrabi, R.O. Ritchie, N. Tsuji, X. Zhang, X. Wu, Heterostructured materials: superior properties from hetero-zone interaction. Mater. Res. Lett. 9, 1–31 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2020.179683610.1080/21663831.2020.1796836 ↗

19. L. Romero-Resendiz, M. El-Tahawy, T. Zhang, M.C. Rossi, D.M. Marulanda-Cardona, T. Yang, V. Amigó-Borrás, Y. Huang, H. Mirzadeh, I.J. Beyerlein, J.C. Huang, T.G. Langdon, Y.T. Zhu, Heterostructured stainless steel: properties, current trends, and future perspectives. Mater. Sci. Eng. R. Rep. 150, 100691 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2022.10069110.1016/j.mser.2022.100691 ↗

20. K. Boufala, S. Ouhenia, G. Louis, D. Betrancourt, D. Chicot, I. Belabbas, Microstructure analysis and mechanical properties by instrumented indentation of Charonia Lampas Lampas shell. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 89, 114–121 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.09.01810.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.09.018 ↗

21. S.J. Walden, W. Rowe, J. Mulville, S.L. Evans, P. Zioupos, Quantifying microcracks on fractured bone surfaces—potential use in forensic anthropology. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 142, 105824 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.10582410.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.105824 ↗

22. C. Tan, Y. Chew, R. Duan, F. Weng, S. Sui, F.L. Ng, Z. Du, G. Bi, Additive manufacturing of multi-scale heterostructured high-strength steels. Mater. Res. Lett. 9, 291–299 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2021.190429910.1080/21663831.2021.1904299 ↗

23. Z. Li, Y. Hu, T. Chen, X. Wang, P. Liu, Y. Lu, Microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of thermally aged cast duplex stainless steel. Materials 13, 5636 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1324563610.3390/ma13245636 ↗

24. K. Edalati, A.Q. Ahmed, S. Akrami, K. Ameyama, V. Aptukov, R.N. Asfandiyarov, M. Ashida, V. Astanin, A. Bachmaier, V. Beloshenko, E.V. Bobruk, K. Bryła, J.M. Cabrera, A.P. Carvalho, N.Q. Chinh, I.-C. Choi, R. Chulist, J.M. Cubero-Sesin, G. Davdian, M. Demirtas, S. Divinski, K. Durst, J. Dvorak, P. Edalati, S. Emura, N.A. Enikeev, G. Faraji, R.B. Figueiredo, R. Floriano, M. Fouladvind, D. Fruchart, M. Fuji, H. Fujiwara, M. Gajdics, D. Gheorghe, Ł Gondek, J.E. González-Hernández, A. Gornakova, T. Grosdidier, J. Gubicza, D. Gunderov, L. He, O.F. Higuera, S. Hirosawa, A. Hohenwarter, Z. Horita, J. Horky, Y. Huang, J. Huot, Y. Ikoma, T. Ishihara, Y. Ivanisenko, J. Jang, A.M. Jorge, M. Kawabata-Ota, M. Kawasaki, T. Khelfa, J. Kobayashi, L. Kommel, A. Korneva, P. Kral, N. Kudriashova, S. Kuramoto, T.G. Langdon, D.-H. Lee, V.I. Levitas, C. Li, H.-W. Li, Y. Li, Z. Li, H.-J. Lin, K.-D. Liss, Y. Liu, D.M.M. Cardona, K. Matsuda, A. Mazilkin, Y. Mine, H. Miyamoto, S.-C. Moon, T. Müller, J.A. Muñoz, MYu. Murashkin, M. Naeem, M. Novelli, D. Olasz, R. Pippan, V.V. Popov, E.N. Popova, G. Purcek, P. de Rango, O. Renk, D. Retraint, Á. Révész, V. Roche, P. Rodriguez-Calvillo, L. Romero-Resendiz, X. Sauvage, T. Sawaguchi, H. Sena, H. Shahmir, X. Shi, V. Sklenicka, W. Skrotzki, N. Skryabina, F. Staab, B. Straumal, Z. Sun, M. Szczerba, Y. Takizawa, Y. Tang, R.Z. Valiev, A. Vozniak, A. Voznyak, B. Wang, J.T. Wang, G. Wilde, F. Zhang, M. Zhang, P. Zhang, J. Zhou, X. Zhu, Y.T. Zhu, Severe plastic deformation for producing superfunctional ultrafine-grained and heterostructured materials: an interdisciplinary review. J. Alloys Compd. 1002, 174667 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.17466710.1016/j.jallcom.2024.174667 ↗

25. Y. Zhu, X. Wu, Heterostructured materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 131, 101019 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.10101910.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.101019 ↗

26. L. Romero-Resendiz, M. Naeem, Y.T. Zhu, Heterostructured materials by severe plastic deformation: overview and perspectives. Mater. Trans. (2023). https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.MT-MF202201010.2320/matertrans.MT-MF2022010 ↗

27. X.W. Yuntian Zhu, Heterostructured materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 131, 101019 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.10101910.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.101019 ↗

28. Y. Zhu, X. Wu, Perspective on hetero-deformation induced (HDI) hardening and back stress. Mater. Res. Lett. 7, 393–398 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2019.161633110.1080/21663831.2019.1616331 ↗

29. X. Wu, Y. Zhu, Heterostructured materials: novel materials with unprecedented mechanical properties, 1st edn. (Jenny Stanford, New York, 2021)10.1201/9781003153078 ↗

30. X.L. Wu, P. Jiang, L. Chen, J.F. Zhang, F.P. Yuan, Y.T. Zhu, Synergetic strengthening by gradient structure. Mater. Res. Lett. 2, 185–191 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2014.93582110.1080/21663831.2014.935821 ↗

31. D. Wu, M. Hao, T. Zhang, Z. Wang, J. Wang, G. Rao, L. Zhang, C. Ding, K. Zhou, L. Liu, D. Wang, Y. Wang, Heterostructures enhance simultaneously strength and ductility of a commercial titanium alloy. Acta Mater. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2023.11918210.1016/j.actamat.2023.119182 ↗

32. J. Nie, Y. Chen, L. Song, Y. Fan, Y. Cao, K. Xie, S. Liu, X. Liu, Y. Zhao, Y. Zhu, Enhancing strength and ductility of Al-matrix composite via a dual-heterostructure strategy. Int. J. Plast. 171, 103825 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2023.10382510.1016/j.ijplas.2023.103825 ↗

33. L. Zhao, W. Zheng, Y. Hu, Q. Guo, D. Zhang, Heterostructured metal matrix composites for structural applications: a review. J. Mater. Sci. 59, 9768–9801 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-023-09300-x10.1007/s10853-023-09300-x ↗

34. K. Hajizadeh, H. Maleki-Ghaleh, A. Arabi, Y. Behnamian, E. Aghaie, A. Farrokhi, M.G. Hosseini, M.H. Fathi, Corrosion and biological behavior of nanostructured 316L stainless steel processed by severe plastic deformation. Surf. Interface Anal. 47, 978–985 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/sia.580610.1002/sia.5806 ↗

35. J. Li, Q. Mao, M. Chen, W. Qin, X. Lu, T. Liu, D. She, J. Kang, G. Wang, X. Zhu, Y. Li, Enhanced pitting resistance through designing a high-strength 316L stainless steel with heterostructure. J. Market. Res. 10, 132–137 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.12.00510.1016/j.jmrt.2020.12.005 ↗

36. Y.B. Lei, Z.B. Wang, B. Zhang, Z.P. Luo, J. Lu, K. Lu, Enhanced mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel by pre-forming a gradient nanostructured surface layer and annealing. Acta Mater. 208, 116773 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2021.11677310.1016/j.actamat.2021.116773 ↗

37. L. Romero-Resendiz, H.J. Kong, T. Zhang, H. Ni, S. Chen, M. Naeem, Y.T. Zhu, Achieving antimicrobial and superior mechanical properties in a scalable and cost-effective heterostructured stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 886, 145676 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.14567610.1016/j.msea.2023.145676 ↗

38. X. Sun, F. Chen, H. Huang, J. Lin, X. Tang, Effects of interfaces on the helium bubble formation and radiation hardening of an austenitic stainless steel achieved by additive manufacturing. Appl. Surf. Sci. 467–468, 1134–1139 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.26810.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.268 ↗

39. G. Meric de Bellefon, K.M. Bertsch, M.R. Chancey, Y.Q. Wang, D.J. Thoma, Influence of solidification structures on radiation-induced swelling in an additively-manufactured austenitic stainless steel. J. Nucl. Mater. 523, 291–298 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2019.06.01210.1016/j.jnucmat.2019.06.012 ↗

40. S.W. Baek, E.J. Song, J.H. Kim, M. Jung, U.B. Baek, S.H. Nahm, Hydrogen embrittlement of 3-D printing manufactured austenitic stainless steel part for hydrogen service. Scr. Mater. 130, 87–90 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.11.02010.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.11.020 ↗

41. D. Kong, C. Dong, X. Ni, L. Zhang, H. Luo, R. Li, L. Wang, C. Man, X. Li, Superior resistance to hydrogen damage for selective laser melted 316L stainless steel in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell environment. Corros. Sci. 166, 108425 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2019.10842510.1016/j.corsci.2019.108425 ↗

42. M. Naeem, R.J. Sánchez Cruz, M.A. Esquivel Neri, Y. Ma, V. Amigó Borrás, G. González, A.J. Knowles, W. Gong, S. Harjo, Y.T. Zhu, X.-L. Wang, L. Romero-Resendiz, Enhanced cryogenic mechanical properties of heterostructured CrCoNi multicomponent alloy: Insights from in-situ neutron diffraction. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 916, 147374 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2024.14737410.1016/j.msea.2024.147374 ↗

43. J. Li, Y. Cao, B. Gao, Y. Li, Y. Zhu, Superior strength and ductility of 316L stainless steel with heterogeneous lamella structure. J. Mater. Sci. 53, 10442–10456 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2322-410.1007/s10853-018-2322-4 ↗

44. X. Wu, M. Yang, F. Yuan, G. Wu, Y. Wei, X. Huang, Y. Zhu, Heterogeneous lamella structure unites ultrafine-grain strength with coarse-grain ductility. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 14501–14505 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.151719311210.1073/pnas.1517193112 ↗

45. L.P. Kubin, A. Mortensen, Geometrically necessary dislocations and strain-gradient plasticity: a few critical issues. Scripta Mater. 48, 119–125 (2003)10.1016/S1359-6462(02)00335-4 ↗

46. F. Nabarro, J.P. Hirth, Dislocations in solids, 1st edn. (Elsevier, North-Holland, 2007)

47. D. Wu, M. Hao, T. Zhang, Z. Wang, J. Wang, G. Rao, L. Zhang, C. Ding, K. Zhou, L. Liu, D. Wang, Y. Wang, Heterostructures enhance simultaneously strength and ductility of a commercial titanium alloy. Acta Mater. 257, 119182 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2023.11918210.1016/j.actamat.2023.119182 ↗

48. X. Hu, S. Jin, H. Zhou, Z. Yin, J. Yang, Y. Gong, Y. Zhu, G. Sha, X. Zhu, Bauschinger effect and back stress in gradient Cu–Ge alloy. Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 48, 3943–3950 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-017-4176-910.1007/s11661-017-4176-9 ↗

49. J. Bauschinger, Changes of the elastic limit and the modulus of elasticity on various metals. Zivilingenieur 27, 289–348 (1881)

50. X. Liu, F. Yuan, Y. Zhu, X. Wu, Extraordinary Bauschinger effect in gradient structured copper. Scr. Mater. 150, 57–60 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2018.03.00710.1016/j.scriptamat.2018.03.007 ↗

51. H. Kato, R. Moat, T. Mori, K. Sasaki, P. Withers, Back stress work hardening confirmed by bauschinger effect in a TRIP steel using bending tests. ISIJ Int. 54, 1715–1718 (2014). https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.54.171510.2355/isijinternational.54.1715 ↗

52. X. Wu, Y. Zhu, Heterogeneous materials: a new class of materials with unprecedented. Mater. Res. Lett. 5, 527–532 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2017.134320810.1080/21663831.2017.1343208 ↗

53. O.B. Pedersen, L.M. Brown, W.M. Stobbs, The Bauschinger effect in copper. Acta Metall. 29, 1843–1850 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160(81)90110-310.1016/0001-6160(81)90110-3 ↗

54. M. Yang, Y. Pan, F. Yuan, Y. Zhu, X. Wu, Back stress strengthening and strain hardening in gradient structure. Mater. Res. Lett. 4, 145–151 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2016.115300410.1080/21663831.2016.1153004 ↗

55. Z. Zhang, S.K. Vajpai, D. Orlov, K. Ameyama, Improvement of mechanical properties in SUS304L steel through the control of bimodal microstructure characteristics. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 598, 106–113 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.01.02310.1016/j.msea.2014.01.023 ↗

56. C. Sawangrat, S. Kato, D. Orlov, K. Ameyama, Harmonic-structured copper: performance and proof of fabrication concept based on severe plastic deformation of powders. J. Mater. Sci. 49, 6579–6585 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-014-8258-410.1007/s10853-014-8258-4 ↗

57. K. Park, M. Nishiyama, N. Nakada, T. Tsuchiyama, S. Takaki, Effect of the martensite distribution on the strain hardening and ductile fracture behaviors in dual-phase steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 604, 135–141 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.02.05810.1016/j.msea.2014.02.058 ↗

58. M. Calcagnotto, Y. Adachi, D. Ponge, D. Raabe, Deformation and fracture mechanisms in fine- and ultrafine-grained ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels and the effect of aging. Acta Mater. 59, 658–670 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2010.10.00210.1016/j.actamat.2010.10.002 ↗

59. X.L. Wu, M.X. Yang, F.P. Yuan, L. Chen, Y.T. Zhu, Combining gradient structure and TRIP effect to produce austenite stainless steel with high strength and ductility. Acta Mater. 112, 337–346 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.04.04510.1016/j.actamat.2016.04.045 ↗

60. X. Ma, C. Huang, J. Moering, M. Ruppert, H.W. Höppel, M. Göken, J. Narayan, Y. Zhu, Mechanical properties of copper/bronze laminates: role of interfaces. Acta Mater. 116, 43–52 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.06.02310.1016/j.actamat.2016.06.023 ↗

61. C.X. Huang, Y.F. Wang, X.L. Ma, S. Yin, H.W. Höppel, M. Göken, X.L. Wu, H.J. Gao, Y.T. Zhu, Interface affected zone for optimal strength and ductility in heterogeneous laminate. Mater. Today 21, 713–719 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2018.03.00610.1016/j.mattod.2018.03.006 ↗

62. L. Romero-Resendiz, T.S. Cano, M. Naeem, A. Ur Rehman, E. Salamci, V.T. Mendoza, E.D. Duran, L.B. Diaz, M.U. Samalci, Mechanical and electrochemical properties comparison of additively manufactured Ti–6Al–4V alloys by electron beam melting and selective laser melting. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-024-09486-410.1007/s11665-024-09486-4 ↗

63. A. Chen, J. Liu, H. Wang, J. Lu, Y.M. Wang, Gradient twinned 304 stainless steels for high strength and high ductility. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 667, 179–188 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.04.07010.1016/j.msea.2016.04.070 ↗

64. S. Ghosh, N. Bibhanshu, S. Suwas, K. Chatterjee, Surface mechanical attrition treatment of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel yields gradient nanostructure with superior strength and ductility. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 820, 141540 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.14154010.1016/j.msea.2021.141540 ↗

65. J. Yang, L. Xu, H. Gao, X. Li, H. Pan, B. Shu, T. Itoh, Y. Zhu, X. Zhu, Effect of global constraint on the mechanical behavior of gradient materials. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 826, 141963 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.14196310.1016/j.msea.2021.141963 ↗

66. T.H. Fang, W.L. Li, N.R. Tao, K. Lu, Revealing extraordinary intrinsic tensile plasticity in gradient nano-grained copper. Science 331(2011), 1587–1590 (1979)

67. B. Zhang, F. Xue, S.L. Li, X.T. Wang, N.N. Liang, Y.H. Zhao, G. Sha, Non-uniform phase separation in ferrite of a duplex stainless steel. Acta Mater. 140, 388–397 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2017.08.04410.1016/j.actamat.2017.08.044 ↗

68. M.C. Somani, M. Jaskari, S. Sadeghpour, C. Hu, R.D.K. Misra, T.T. Nyo, C. Yang, L.P. Karjalainen, Improving the yield strength of an antibacterial 304Cu austenitic stainless steel by the reversion treatment. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 793, 139885 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.13988510.1016/j.msea.2020.139885 ↗

69. A. Kisko, A.S. Hamada, J. Talonen, D. Porter, L.P. Karjalainen, Effects of reversion and recrystallization on microstructure and mechanical properties of Nb-alloyed low-Ni high-Mn austenitic stainless steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 657, 359–370 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.01.09310.1016/j.msea.2016.01.093 ↗

70. G.S. Sun, J. Hu, B. Zhang, L.X. Du, The significant role of heating rate on reverse transformation and coordinated straining behavior in a cold-rolled austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 732, 350–358 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.07.02410.1016/j.msea.2018.07.024 ↗

71. J. He, L. Chen, Z. Guo, H. Zhi, S. Antonov, Y. Su, A novel 13Cr austenitic stainless steel with excellent mechanical properties and high hydrogen embrittlement resistance via heterostructure and TRIP effects. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 793, 139835 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.13983510.1016/j.msea.2020.139835 ↗

72. X.H. Zhao, D.W. Nie, D.S. Xu, Y. Liu, C.H. Hu, Effect of gradient nanostructures on tribological properties of 316L stainless steel with high energy ion implantation tungsten carbide. Tribol. Trans. 62, 189–197 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/10402004.2018.150879710.1080/10402004.2018.1508797 ↗

73. S. Zherebtsov, E. Kudryavtsev, S. Kostjuchenko, S. Malysheva, G. Salishchev, Strength and ductility-related properties of ultrafine grained two-phase titanium alloy produced by warm multiaxial forging. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 536, 190–196 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2011.12.10210.1016/j.msea.2011.12.102 ↗

74. D. Orlov, Y. Todaka, M. Umemoto, N. Tsuji, Formation of bimodal grain structures in high purity Al by reversal high pressure torsion. Scr. Mater. 64, 498–501 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.11.02010.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.11.020 ↗

75. W. Yinmin, C. Mingwei, Z. Fenghua, M. En, High tensile ductility in a nanostructured metal. Nature 419, 912 (2002)10.1038/nature01133 ↗

76. H. Jin, D.J. Lloyd, Effect of a duplex grain size on the tensile ductility of an ultra-fine grained Al–Mg alloy, AA5754, produced by asymmetric rolling and annealing. Scr. Mater. 50, 1319–1323 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2004.02.02110.1016/j.scriptamat.2004.02.021 ↗

77. M.C. Zhao, F. Yin, T. Hanamura, K. Nagai, A. Atrens, Relationship between yield strength and grain size for a bimodal structural ultrafine-grained ferrite/cementite steel. Scr. Mater. 57, 857–860 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.06.06210.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.06.062 ↗

78. C. Shuai, D. Li, X. Yao, X. Li, C. Gao, Additive manufacturing of promising heterostructure for biomedical applications. Int. J. Extreme Manuf. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/acded210.1088/2631-7990/acded2 ↗

79. Y. Kong, K. Peng, H. Huang, Highly controllable additive manufacturing of heterostructured nickel-based composites. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 195, 104112 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2023.10411210.1016/j.ijmachtools.2023.104112 ↗

80. G.F. Liu, T.J. Chen, Synthesis of heterogeneity-improved heterostructured 2024Al alloy with excellent synergy of strength and ductility via powder thixoforming. J. Alloys Compd. 932, 167661 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.16766110.1016/j.jallcom.2022.167661 ↗

81. X. Xu, P. Kumar, R. Cao, Q. Ye, Y. Chu, Y. Tian, Y. Li, R.O. Ritchie, Exceptional cryogenic-to-ambient impact toughness of a low carbon micro-alloyed steel with a multi-heterogeneous structure. Acta Mater. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2024.12001910.1016/j.actamat.2024.120019 ↗

82. X. Sun, X. Hao, J. Nie, Y. Fan, Y. Chen, S. Liu, X. Liu, Y. Zhao, Microstructure and enhanced cryogenic tensile property of a heterostructured Al-AlN/Al–Mg composite fabricated by accumulative roll bonding (ARB). J. Market. Res. 21, 532–545 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.09.03710.1016/j.jmrt.2022.09.037 ↗

83. F.J. Guo, L.Y. Song, Q. He, B. Yang, X.H. Zheng, Q.Y. Wang, C.X. Huang, Enhancing cryogenic tensile properties of CrCoNi medium entropy alloy via heterogeneous microstructure design. Mater Charact (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2023.11295110.1016/j.matchar.2023.112951 ↗

84. W. Su, M. Wang, F. Guo, H. Ran, Q. Cheng, Q. Wang, Y. Zhu, X. Ma, C. Huang, Heterostructure enables anomalous improvement of cryogenic mechanical properties in titanium. Acta Mater. 273, 119982 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2024.11998210.1016/j.actamat.2024.119982 ↗

85. J.C. Cheng, N. Li, J.Y. Huang, A.R. Cui, X.J. Zhao, Y. Cai, Q.Y. Wang, S.N. Luo, Dynamic compression responses of heterogeneous-structured CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy alloy at cryogenic temperatures. Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.14606310.1016/j.msea.2023.146063 ↗

86. X. Zhang, J. Li, Q. Gong, C. Liu, J. Li, Deformation behaviors at cryogenic temperature of lean duplex stainless steel with heterogeneous structure prepared by a short process. J. Market. Res. 24, 9273–9291 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.09310.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.093 ↗

87. Z. Zhang, W. Wang, S. Qin, M. Yang, J. Wang, P. Jiang, F. Yuan, X. Wu, Dual heterogeneous structured medium-entropy alloys showing a superior strength-ductility synergy at cryogenic temperature. J. Market. Res. 17, 3262–3276 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.02.07810.1016/j.jmrt.2022.02.078 ↗

88. M. Naeem, H. He, S. Harjo, T. Kawasaki, W. Lin, J.J. Kai, Z. Wu, S. Lan, X.L. Wang, Temperature-dependent hardening contributions in CrFeCoNi high-entropy alloy. Acta Mater. 221, 117371 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2021.11737110.1016/j.actamat.2021.117371 ↗

89. L. Romero-Resendiz, Y. Huang, A.J. Knowles, J. Kelleher, T.L. Lee, T. Mousavi, M. Naeem, Exceptional strength–ductility combination of heterostructured stainless steel for cryogenic applications. Scr. Mater. 258, 116527 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2024.11652710.1016/j.scriptamat.2024.116527 ↗

90. G.B. Olson, M. Cohen, A mechanism for the strain-induced nucleation of martensitic transformations. J. Less Common Metals 28, 107–118 (1972). https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5088(72)90173-710.1016/0022-5088(72)90173-7 ↗

91. M. Naeem, H. He, F. Zhang, H. Huang, S. Harjo, T. Kawasaki, B. Wang, S. Lan, Z. Wu, F. Wang, Y. Wu, Z. Lu, Z. Zhang, C.T. Liu, X.L. Wang, Cooperative deformation in high-entropy alloys at ultralow temperatures. Sci. Adv. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax400210.1126/sciadv.aax4002 ↗

92. D.C.C. Magalhães, A.M. Kliauga, M. Ferrante, V.L. Sordi, Plastic deformation of FCC alloys at cryogenic temperature: the effect of stacking-fault energy on microstructure and tensile behaviour. J. Mater. Sci. 52, 7466–7478 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-0979-810.1007/s10853-017-0979-8 ↗

93. M. Naeem, H. Zhou, H. He, S. Harjo, T. Kawasaki, S. Lan, Z. Wu, Y. Zhu, X.L. Wang, Martensitic transformation in CrCoNi medium-entropy alloy at cryogenic temperature. Appl. Phys. Lett. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.006726810.1063/5.0067268 ↗

94. M. Naeem, H. He, S. Harjo, T. Kawasaki, F. Zhang, B. Wang, S. Lan, Z. Wu, Y. Wu, Z. Lu, C.T. Liu, X.L. Wang, Extremely high dislocation density and deformation pathway of CrMnFeCoNi high entropy alloy at ultralow temperature. Scr. Mater. 188, 21–25 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2020.07.00410.1016/j.scriptamat.2020.07.004 ↗

95. T.S. Byun, N. Hashimoto, K. Farrell, Temperature dependence of strain hardening and plastic instability behaviors in austenitic stainless steels. Acta Mater. 52, 3889–3899 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2004.05.00310.1016/j.actamat.2004.05.003 ↗

96. M. Yuemin, M. Naeem, L. Zhu, H. He, X. Sun, Z. Yang, H. Feng, S. Harjo, T. Kawasaki, X. Wang, Microscopic insights of the extraordinary work-hardening due to phase transformation. Acta Mater. 270, 119822 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2024.11982210.1016/j.actamat.2024.119822 ↗

97. K.Z. Zhou, C. Su, Y. Bao, A paradox of price–quality and market efficiency: a comparative study of the US and China markets. Int. J. Res. Mark. 19, 349–365 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8116(02)00096-410.1016/S0167-8116(02)00096-4 ↗

98. X.T. Fang, G.Z. He, C. Zheng, X.L. Ma, D. Kaoumi, Y.S. Li, Y.T. Zhu, Effect of heterostructure and hetero-deformation induced hardening on the strength and ductility of brass. Acta Mater. 186, 644–655 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2020.01.03710.1016/j.actamat.2020.01.037 ↗

99. A. Charpentier Poncelet, C. Helbig, P. Loubet, A. Beylot, S. Muller, J. Villeneuve, B. Laratte, A. Thorenz, A. Tuma, G. Sonnemann, Losses and lifetimes of metals in the economy. Nat. Sustain. 5, 717–726 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00895-810.1038/s41893-022-00895-8 ↗

100. R. Yokoi, T. Watari, M. Motoshita, Future greenhouse gas emissions from metal production: Gaps and opportunities towards climate goals. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 146–157 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee02165f10.1039/d1ee02165f ↗