In situ analysis of gas evolution in liquid- and solid-electrolyte-based batteries with current and next-generation cathode materials

Abstract The operation of combined mass spectrometry and electrochemistry setups has recently become a powerful approach for the in situ analysis of gas evolution in batteries. It allows for real-time insights and mechanistic understanding into different processes, including battery formation, operation, degradation, and behavior under stress conditions. Important information is gained on the safety and stability window as well as on the effect of protecting strategies, such as surface coatings, dopings, and electrolyte additives. This review primarily aims at summarizing recent findings on the gassing behavior in different kinds of liquid- and solid-electrolyte-based batteries, with emphasis placed on novel cathode-active materials and isotope labeling experiments, to highlight the relevance of in situ gas analysis for elucidation of reaction mechanisms. Various instrumental and experimental approaches are presented to encourage and inspire both novices and experienced scientists in the field. Graphical abstract