Latest advances in extrusion processes of light metals
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract The paper presents a review of the literature and authors’ research on the current achievements in the field of extrusion of aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, powders and aluminium-based composites in particular. The microstructure transformations taking place during homogenisation of billets from the medium- and high-strength heat-treatable aluminium alloys are still an object of interest of researchers. The recently published papers are related to dissolution of soluble phases formed during solidification and elimination of microsegregation, precipitation of the dispersoids, insoluble phases’ transformation as well as particles re-precipitation during cooling. The novelties in the extrusion of magnesium alloys and aluminium-based composites are shortly reported. Specifics of the extrusion dies design and their working conditions, which limit the products quality and working life of the tools, are extensively reported. The computer-aided designing (CAD) and finite-element method (FEM) and 3D optical scanning were used in analysis aimed at dimensional deviations of the dies and the extruded products. The surface engineering techniques such as welding techniques, diffusion layers and protective coatings such as produced by physical vapour deposition (PVD), plasma-enhanced physical vapour deposition (PAPVD), chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) are described. Various original methods of extrusion including the severe plastic deformation processes (SPD), such as cyclic extrusion compression (CEC), equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) and hydrostatic extrusion (HE) are discussed. The above techniques as well as the new KOBO extrusion process with oscillating die movement generate significant refining of the microstructure of metals and alloys and enable consolidation of the powdered materials. The application of the rapid solidification process connected with the hot extrusion permits production of beneficial microstructure and above-standard mechanical properties of the extruded products. Finally, the opportunities and directions of development of the extrusion process of metals and alloys are indicated.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Aluminum Alloys Composites Properties · Aluminum Alloy Microstructure Properties · Microstructure and mechanical properties
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Wang Y, Hou L, Su H, Tian Q, Yu K, Eskin D, Katgerman L, Zhuang L. Tuning homogenization of high-strength aluminum alloys through thermodynamic alloying approach. Mater Des. 2022;221:110975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110975.10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110975 ↗
2. Shu WX, Hou LG, Liu JC, Zhang C, Zhang F, Liu JT, Zhuang LZ, Zhang JS. Solidification paths and phase components at high temperatures of high-Zn Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys with different Mg and Cu contents. Metall Mater Trans A. 2015;46:5375–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-015-3050-x.10.1007/s11661-015-3050-x ↗
3. Priya P, Johnson DR, Krane MJM. Modeling phase transformation kinetics during homogenization of aluminum alloy 7050. Comput Mater Sci. 2017;138:277–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2017.06.043.10.1016/j.commatsci.2017.06.043 ↗
4. Woźnicki A, Leszczyńska-Madej B, Włoch G, Grzyb J, Madura J, Leśniak D. Homogenization of 7075 and 7049 aluminium alloys intended for extrusion welding. Metals (Basel). 2021;11:338. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11020338.10.3390/met11020338 ↗
5. Woźnicki A, Leszczyńska-Madej B, Włoch G, Madura J, Bogusz M, Leśniak D. Homogenization of extrusion billets of a novel Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloy with increased copper content. Materials. 2023;16:2091. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16052091.10.3390/ma16052091 ↗
6. Lin H, Zhu K, Liu Q, Chen L, Wang Z, Li X. Microstructural characterization of the as-cast and homogenized Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy. Materials. 2023;16:433. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010433.10.3390/ma16010433 ↗
7. Deng Y, Zhang Y, Wan L, Zhu AA, Zhang X. Three-stage homogenization of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys containing trace Zr. Metall Mater Trans A. 2013;44:2470–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-013-1639-5.10.1007/s11661-013-1639-5 ↗
8. Shan Z, Liu S, Ye L, Liu X, Dong Y, Li Y, Tang J, Deng Y, Zhang X. Effect of three-stage homogenization on recrystallization and fatigue crack growth of 7020 aluminum alloy. J Mark Res. 2020;9:13216–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.09.066.10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.09.066 ↗
9. Zhou H, Ding L, Liu M, Zeng Y, Lei X, Weng Y, Wang K, Jia Z. The effects of double-step homogenization on precipitation behavior of Al3Zr dispersoids and microstructural evolution in 2196 aluminum alloy. Metals (Basel). 2023;13:1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061018.10.3390/met13061018 ↗
10. Li Z, Qin J, Zhang H, Wang X, Zhang B, Nagaumi H. Improved distribution and uniformity of α-Al(Mn, Cr)Si dispersoids in Al–Mg–Si–Cu–Mn (6xxx) alloys by two-step homogenization. Metall Mater Trans A. 2021;52:3204–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-021-06243-3.10.1007/s11661-021-06243-3 ↗
11. Røyset J, Bauger Ø, Reiso O, Tundal U. Innovations in billet casting and homogenization. In: Proceedings of the 11th international aluminum extrusiontechnology seminar (ET’16), Chicago, IL, USA, n.d. p. 115–15.
12. Bayat N, Carlberg T, Cieslar M. In-situ study of phase transformations during homogenization of 6005 and 6082 Al alloys. J Alloys Compd. 2017;725:504–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.07.149.10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.07.149 ↗
13. Kumar S, Grant PS, O’Reilly KAQ. Evolution of Fe bearing intermetallics during DC casting and homogenization of an Al–Mg–Si Al alloy. Metall Mater Trans A. 2016;47:3000–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-016-3451-5.10.1007/s11661-016-3451-5 ↗
14. Qin J, Nagaumi H, Yu C, Liu F, Li Y, Wang L. Coarsening behavior of Mg2Si precipitates during post homogenization cooling process in Al–Mg–Si alloy. J Alloys Compd. 2022;902:162851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.162851.10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.162851 ↗
15. Zeng Z, Stanford N, Davies CHJ, Nie J-F, Birbilis N. Magnesium extrusion alloys: a review of developments and prospects. Int Mater Rev. 2019;64:27–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2017.1421439.10.1080/09506608.2017.1421439 ↗
16. Pan F, Jiang B, Wang J, Hu Y, Luo S, Nie F, Birbiis N. High plasticity magnesium alloys. London: Elsevier; 2022.
17. Liu Z, Li L, Yi J, Li S, Wang G. Influence of extrusion speed on the seam weld quality in the porthole die extrusion of AZ31 magnesium alloy tube. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2017;92:1039–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0200-x.10.1007/s00170-017-0200-x ↗
18. Negendank M, Sanabria V, Müller S, Reimers W. Extrusion of magnesium alloy hollow profiles with axial variable wall thickness; 2019: p. 030002. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5112530.10.1063/1.5112530 ↗
19. Li L, Cao H, Qi F, Wang Q, Zhao N, Liu Y, Ye X, Ouyang X. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–5Zn–1Mn alloy tube. Metals (Basel). 2020;10:301. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10030301.10.3390/met10030301 ↗
20. Zhong L, Wang Y, Dou Y. On the improved tensile strength and ductility of Mg–Sn–Zn–Mn alloy processed by aging prior to extrusion. J Magn Alloys. 2019;7:637–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2019.07.007.10.1016/j.jma.2019.07.007 ↗
21. Calado LM, Carmezim MJ, Montemor MF. Rare earth based magnesium alloys—a review on WE series. Front Mater. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.804906.10.3389/fmats.2021.804906 ↗
22. Gusieva K, Davies CHJ, Scully JR, Birbilis N. Corrosion of magnesium alloys: the role of alloying. Int Mater Rev. 2015;60:169–94. https://doi.org/10.1179/1743280414Y.0000000046.10.1179/1743280414Y.0000000046 ↗
23. Ghorbanpour S, McWilliams BA, Knezevic M. Effect of hot working and aging heat treatments on monotonic, cyclic, and fatigue behavior of WE43 magnesium alloy. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;747:27–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.01.056.10.1016/j.msea.2019.01.056 ↗
24. Wu X, Xu C, Kuan J, Zhang Z, Zhang J, Yang W. Effects of hot extrusion temperature on mechanical and corrosion properties of Mg–Y–Zn–Zr biological magnesium alloy containing W phase and I phase. Materials. 2020;13:1147. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051147.10.3390/ma13051147 ↗
25. Xu W, Birbilis N, Sha G, Wang Y, Daniels JE, Xiao Y, Ferry M. A high-specific-strength and corrosion-resistant magnesium alloy. Nat Mater. 2015;14:1229–35. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat4435.10.1038/nmat4435 ↗
26. Wang Y, Zhao G. Hot extrusion processing of Al–Li alloy profiles and related issues: a review. Chin J Mech Eng. 2020;33:64. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10033-020-00479-7.10.1186/s10033-020-00479-7 ↗
27. Chen L, Zhao G, Chen G, Liang Z, Zhang C. Numerical simulation and experimental study on porthole die extrusion process of LZ91 Mg–Li alloy. Acta Metall Sin. 2018;54:339–46.
28. Ewa Śliwa R. Metal forming of magnesium alloys for various applications. In: Magnesium alloys structure and properties, IntechOpen; 2022. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101034.10.5772/intechopen.101034 ↗
29. Mussatto A, Ahad IU, Mousavian RT, Delaure Y, Brabazon D. Advanced production routes for metal matrix composites. Eng Rep. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12330.10.1002/eng2.12330 ↗
30. Nturanabo F, Masu L, Baptist Kirabira J. Novel applications of aluminium metal matrix composites. In: Aluminium alloys and composites. IntechOpen; 2020. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86225.10.5772/intechopen.86225 ↗
31. Bhoi NK, Singh H, Pratap S. Developments in the aluminum metal matrix composites reinforced by micro/nano particles—a review. J Compos Mater. 2020;54:813–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998319865307.10.1177/0021998319865307 ↗
32. Mistry JM, Gohil PP. Research review of diversified reinforcement on aluminum metal matrix composites: fabrication processes and mechanical characterization. Sci Eng Compos Mater. 2018;25:633–47. https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2016-0278.10.1515/secm-2016-0278 ↗
33. Feijoo I, Merino P, Pena G, Rey P, Cabeza M. Microstructure and mechanical properties of an extruded 6005A Al alloy composite reinforced with TiC nanosized particles and strengthened by precipitation hardening. Metals (Basel). 2020;10:1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10081050.10.3390/met10081050 ↗
34. Zasadzińska M, Strzępek P, Mamala A, Noga P. Reinforcement of aluminium-matrix composites with glass fibre by metallurgical synthesis. Materials. 2020;13:5441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13235441.10.3390/ma13235441 ↗
35. Yi L-F, Kunimoto S, Ishii T, He L, Onda T, Chen Z-C. Improved mechanical properties of mechanically milled Mg2Si particles reinforced aluminum-matrix composites prepared by hot extrusion. Mater Sci Eng A. 2023;871:144904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.144904.10.1016/j.msea.2023.144904 ↗
36. Babu JSS, Lee CH, Kang CG. Study of the mechanical and workability properties of extruded aluminium (Al6061) based composites reinforced with MWCNTs. J Market Res. 2020;9:5278–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.03.054.10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.03.054 ↗
37. Li Z, Chen L, Zhang X, Zhao G, Zhang C. Strengthening mechanism and anisotropy of mechanical properties of Si3N4p/Al–Mg–Si composites fabricated by sintering and extrusion. Mater Des. 2021;210:110111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110111.10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110111 ↗
38. Li Z, Chen L, Zhang X, Que B, Zhao G, Zhang C. Effects of TiB2 particle and local aspect ratio on microstructure and mechanical properties of an I-shaped TiB2/6061Al composite profile. Mater Sci Eng A. 2022;846:143284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.143284.10.1016/j.msea.2022.143284 ↗
39. Nittala A, Smith J, Gwalani B, Silverstein J, Kraft FF, Kappagantula K. Simultaneously improved electrical and mechanical performance of hot-extruded bulk scale aluminum–graphene wires. Mater Sci Eng B. 2023;293:116452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2023.116452.10.1016/j.mseb.2023.116452 ↗
40. Wu B, Peng Y, Tang H, Zhan Y, Zhang F. Microstructural evolution of nanodiamond-reinforced aluminum matrix composites during the process of hot extrusion. Ceram Int. 2023;49:9355–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.11.103.10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.11.103 ↗
41. Zasadziński J. Technological diagrams of manufacturing products of 6061 + SiC aluminum alloy composites, Rudy i Metale Nieżelazne 64; 2019.
42. DWA Aluminium Composites USA Inc. http://www.dwa-usa.com (n.d.).
43. Borowski J, Płaczek G, Jurczak H, Leśniak D, Libura W, Zasadziński J, Rękas A. Analysis of mechanical properties and dimensional accuracy of hollow thin-walled shapes extruded from AW6082 alloy. Metal Forming XXVI. 2016;I:7–20.
44. Liu Z, Li L, Li S, Yi J, Wang G. Simulation analysis of porthole die extrusion process and die structure modifications for an aluminum profile with high length-width ratio and small cavity. Materials. 2018;11:1517. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091517.10.3390/ma11091517 ↗
45. Xue X, Vincze G, Pereira A, Pan J, Liao J. Assessment of metal flow balance in multi-output porthole hot extrusion of AA6060 thin-walled profile. Metals (Basel). 2018;8:462. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8060462.10.3390/met8060462 ↗
46. Yi J, Wang Z, Liu Z, Zhang J, He X. FE analysis of extrusion defect and optimization of metal flow in porthole die for complex hollow aluminum profile. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China. 2018;28:2094–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(18)64853-8.10.1016/S1003-6326(18)64853-8 ↗
47. Raknes CA, Welo T, Paulsen F. Dimensional accuracy of aluminium extrusions in mechanical calibration; 2018: p. 160024. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5035050.10.1063/1.5035050 ↗
48. Donati L, Segatori A, Gamberoni A, Reggiani B, Tomesani L, Benchmark E. Effect of die design on profile quality and distortions of thin C-shaped hollow profiles. Mater Today Proc. 2017;10(2019):171–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.394.10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.394 ↗
49. Truong TT, Hsu Q-C, Tong V-C, Sheu J-J. A design approach of porthole die for flow balance in extrusion of complex solid aluminum heatsink profile with large variable wall thickness. Metals (Basel). 2020;10:553. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10050553.10.3390/met10050553 ↗
50. Mahmoodkhani Y, Wells MA, Parson NC, Chen J, Poole WJ. Influence of extrusion die bearing geometry on surface grain. In: ET’16: a clear vision for the future: proceedings of the twelfth international aluminium extrusion technology seminar & exposition; 2016.
51. Zhu H, Zhang X, Couper MJ, Dahle AK. The formation of streak defects on anodized aluminum extrusions. JOM. 2010;62:46–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-010-0077-8.10.1007/s11837-010-0077-8 ↗
52. Yu J, Zhao G, Chen L. Analysis of longitudinal weld seam defects and investigation of solid-state bonding criteria in porthole die extrusion process of aluminum alloy profiles. J Mater Process Technol. 2016;237:31–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.05.024.10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.05.024 ↗
53. Crosio M, Hora D, Hora P. Experimental and numerical analysis of bonding criteria for seam welds during aluminium extrusion processes of hollow profiles, Zurich; 2019.
54. Kniazkin I, Vlasov A. Quality prediction of longitudinal seam welds in aluminium profile extrusion based on simulation. Proc Manuf. 2020;50:433–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2020.08.079.10.1016/j.promfg.2020.08.079 ↗
55. Wang Y, Wells MA. The effect of the bridge’s angle during porthole die extrusion of aluminum AA6082. Metals (Basel). 2023;13:605. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13030605.10.3390/met13030605 ↗
56. Robbins PH, Mahmoodkhani Y, Jowett C, Dickson R. Extrusion productivity: ram speed/die design/container. In: Proceedings of the ET’22 extrusion technology conference and exhibition, Orlando US; 2022.
57. Valberg H, Nolte D, Yawar K. Metal flow conditions in porthole channels of different size. Key Eng Mater. 2014;611–612:1005–12. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.611-612.1005.10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.611-612.1005 ↗
58. Donati L, Ben Khalifa N, Tomesani L, Tekkaya AE. Effect of porthole design and welding chamber dimensions on material flow and weld deformability of extruded aluminium profiles. Key Eng Mater. 2012;504–506:523–8. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.504-506.523.10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.504-506.523 ↗
59. Lu FL, Song JS, Zhang J. Numerical simulation analysis on porthole dies extrusion of aluminum mini-thin harmonica-shaped tube. Appl Mech Mater. 2013;457–458:156–9. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.457-458.156.10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.457-458.156 ↗
60. Madura J. Analysis of extrusion of profile from 6005A alloy by using innovative porthole die constructions. Doctoral Thesis, AGH; 2023.
61. EN 755-2; Aluminium and aluminium alloys—extruded rod/bar, tube and profiles—part 2: mechanical properties.
62. 755-9; Aluminium and aluminium alloys—extruded rod/bar, tube and profiles—part 9: profiles, tolerances on dimensions and form.
63. Hsu Q-C, Chen Y-L, Lee T-H. Non-symmetric hollow extrusion of high strength 7075 aluminum alloy. Proc Eng. 2014;81:622–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.10.050.10.1016/j.proeng.2014.10.050 ↗
64. Chen G, Chen L, Zhao G, Zhang C, Cui W. Microstructure analysis of an Al–Zn–Mg alloy during porthole die extrusion based on modeling of constitutive equation and dynamic recrystallization. J Alloys Compd. 2017;710:80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.03.240.10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.03.240 ↗
65. Pinter T. The influence of die design on productivity and recovery for an AA7020 hollow section. Light Metal Age; 2020.
66. Leśniak D, Zasadziński J, Libura W, Żaba K, Puchlerska S, Madura J, Balcerzak M, Płonka B, Jurczak H. FEM numerical and experimental study on dimensional accuracy of tubes extruded from 6082 and 7021 aluminium alloys. Materials. 2023;16:556. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020556.10.3390/ma16020556 ↗
67. Leśniak D, Libura W, Leszczyńska-Madej B, Bogusz M, Madura J, Płonka B, Boczkal S. FEM numerical and experimental work on extrusion welding of 7021 aluminum alloy. Materials. 2023;16:5817. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175817.10.3390/ma16175817 ↗
68. Leśniak D, Rekas A, Libura W, Zasadzinski J, Latos T, Jurczak H. Method for testing ability of metals or alloys and the device for producing welded samples for testing weldability of metals or alloys. Patent No PL230273B1, AGH Krakow; 2018.
69. Krumphals F, Wlanis T, Sievert R, Wieser V, Sommitsch C. Damage analysis of extrusion tools made from the austenitic hot work tool steel Böhler W750. Comput Mater Sci. 2011;50:1250–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2010.04.022.10.1016/j.commatsci.2010.04.022 ↗
70. Berrais A, Boudebane A, Labaiz M, Montagne A, Lemboub S, Touhami MZ, Ourdjini A. Analysis of wear of a nitrided AISI H13 hot work tool steel in an aluminium hot extrusion process. Wear. 2023;514–515:204587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2022.204587.10.1016/j.wear.2022.204587 ↗
71. Painter B, Shivpuri R, Altan T. Prediction of die wear during hot-extrusion of engine valves. J Mater Process Technol. 1996;59:132–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0924-0136(96)02294-7.10.1016/0924-0136(96)02294-7 ↗
72. Janus P. Surface modification of hydrostatic extrusion dies; 2004.
73. https://www.morgantechnicalceramics.com/en-gb/products/zirconia-ceramic-components/copper-and-brass-extrusion-dies/ (2022).
74. Lin Z, Juchen X, Xinyun W, Guoan H. Optimization of die profile for improving die life in the hot extrusion process. J Mater Process Technol. 2003;142:659–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(03)00686-1.10.1016/S0924-0136(03)00686-1 ↗
75. He Y, Huang T, Wang Y, Nie Y, Li Y, Wang Y. A new lightweight design method integrating shape optimization with life cycle assessment for extrusion dies. J Clean Prod. 2017;150:47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.186.10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.186 ↗
76. Qamar SZ, Sheikh AK, Arif AFM, Younas M, Pervez T. Monte Carlo simulation of extrusion die life. J Mater Process Technol. 2008;202:96–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.08.062.10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.08.062 ↗
77. Pelaccia R, Negozio M, Donati L, Reggiani B, Tomesani L. Efficiency of conformal cooling channels inserts for extrusion dies. Proc Manuf. 2020;47:209–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2020.04.181.10.1016/j.promfg.2020.04.181 ↗
78. Bertoli C. Optimization of hybrid extrusion dies with internal cooling channels, ETH; 2020.
79. Hölker R, Haase M, Ben Khalifa N, Tekkaya AE. Hot extrusion dies with conformal cooling channels produced by additive manufacturing. Mater Today Proc. 2015;2:4838–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2015.10.028.10.1016/j.matpr.2015.10.028 ↗
80. Appiah ANS, Bialas O, Żuk M, Czupryński A, Sasu DK, Adamiak M. Hardfacing of mild steel with wear-resistant Ni-based powders containing tungsten carbide particles using powder plasma transferred arc welding technology. Mater Sci Pol. 2022;40:42–63. https://doi.org/10.2478/msp-2022-0033.10.2478/msp-2022-0033 ↗
81. Lu H, Cai J, Luo K, Xing F, Zhang Q, Yao J, Lu J. Thermal fatigue life and improvement mechanism of Fe-based coatings on H13 extrusion die by laser additive remanufacturing. Surf Coat Technol. 2021;408:126808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126808.10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126808 ↗
82. Gronostajski Z, Widomski P, Kaszuba M, Zwierzchowski M, Hawryluk M. Influence of both hardfaced and nitrided layers on the durability of hot forging tools. Surf Innov. 2018;6:301–10. https://doi.org/10.1680/jsuin.18.00021.10.1680/jsuin.18.00021 ↗
83. Kaszuba M, Widomski P, Białucki P, Lange A, Boryczko B, Walczak M. Properties of new-generation hybrid layers combining hardfacing and nitriding dedicated to improvement in forging tools’ durability. Arch Civ Mech Eng. 2020;20:78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43452-020-00080-8.10.1007/s43452-020-00080-8 ↗
84. Hubicki R, Richert M, Łebkowski P. Influence of operating temperature on the service life of aluminum extrusion dies. Materials. 2022;15:6656. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196656.10.3390/ma15196656 ↗
85. Pachutko B, Borowski J, Jurczak H. Studies of the wear processes of dies for aluminum profile extrusion with prototyped nitrided layers. Metal Forming-Obróbka Plastyczna Metali XXV (2014) 201–213.
86. Lukaszkowicz K, Dobrzanski LA, Kokot G, Ostachowski P. Characterization and properties of PVD coatings applied to extrusion dies. Vacuum. 2012;86:2082–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2012.04.025.10.1016/j.vacuum.2012.04.025 ↗
87. Maier J. Long term wear investigation on CVD coated extrusion dies; 2019.
88. https://wefa.com/en/coated-dies/ (2022).
89. Moscicki T, Psiuk R, Słomińska H, Levintant-Zayonts N, Garbiec D, Pisarek M, Bazarnik P, Nosewicz S, Chrzanowska-Giżyńska J. Influence of overstoichiometric boron and titanium addition on the properties of RF magnetron sputtered tungsten borides. Surf Coat Technol. 2020;390:125689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.125689.10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.125689 ↗
90. Valiev RZ, Islamgaliev RK, Alexandrov IV. Bulk nanostructured materials from severe plastic deformation. Prog Mater Sci. 2000;45:103–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6425(99)00007-9.10.1016/S0079-6425(99)00007-9 ↗
91. Valiev RZ, Estrin Y, Horita Z, Langdon TG, Zechetbauer MJ, Zhu YT. Producing bulk ultrafine-grained materials by severe plastic deformation. JOM. 2006;58:33–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-006-0213-7.10.1007/s11837-006-0213-7 ↗
92. Lowe TC, Valiev RZ. The use of severe plastic deformation techniques in grain refinement. JOM. 2004;56:64–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-004-0295-z.10.1007/s11837-004-0295-z ↗
93. Furukawa M, Horita Z, Nemoto M, Langdon TG. The use of severe plastic deformation for microstructural control. Mater Sci Eng A. 2002;324:82–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01288-6.10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01288-6 ↗
94. Segal V. Review: modes and processes of severe plastic deformation (SPD). Materials. 2018;11:1175. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071175.10.3390/ma11071175 ↗
95. Richert J, Richert M, Zasadziński J, Korbel A. Mode of plastic deformation of metals and alloys and the equipment for plastic deformation of metals and alloys. PL 181 693; 1979.
96. Richert M. Engineering of nanomaterials and ultrafine-grained structures. Kraków: AGH University Press; 2006.
97. Richert J. Innovative methods of metal forming. Kraków: AGH University Press; 2010.
98. Leszczyńska-Madej B. Methods of grain refinement by intensive plastic deformation methods. Kraków: Wzorek Press; 2013.
99. El-Garhy G, El Mahallawy N, Shoukry MK. Effect of grain refining by cyclic extrusion compression (CEC) of Al-6061 and Al-6061/SiC on wear behavior. J Market Res. 2021;12:1886–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.03.114.10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.03.114 ↗
100. Huang H, Tang Z, Tian Y, Jia G, Niu J, Zhang H, Pei J, Yuan G, Ding W. Effects of cyclic extrusion and compression parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–1.50Zn–0.25Gd alloy. Mater Des. 2015;86:788–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.155.10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.155 ↗