DataVXJournal of Materials Engineering and PerformancePaper
journal article·2021-09

Microstructure Evolution in Additively Manufactured Steel Molds: A Review

Wee King Law, Kok-Cheong Wong, Haoliang Wang, Zhenzhong Sun, Chin Seong Lim

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance· Volume 30· Issue 9
Publisher page
Source abstract

Abstract

Over the last decade, developments in metal additive manufacturing (AM) have opened up new possibilities in various industries. Current metal AM technologies are now capable of processing a larger selection of metals, including steel mold materials such as H13 and P20. In the injection molding industry, mold makers have implemented metal AM technologies to 3D print steel molds. The main challenge currently faced by mold makers is to 3D print steel molds with mechanical properties that are comparable with conventionally made ones. Research on the microstructure evolution in 3D printed steel molds provide the necessary information for tailoring the mold’s microstructure and improving its mechanical properties. This review presents a unique perspective on the microstructure evolution in 3D printed steel molds. The microstructure evolution is discussed according to two major processing stages. Stage 1 describes the formation of the mold’s microstructure in as-built condition after it has solidified from its molten state. Subsequently, Stage 2 describes the changes in the mold’s microstructure post-heat treatment. This review also summarizes the various experimental techniques and numerical models used to study the microstructure evolution in 3D printed components. Advances in experimental microstructure characterization techniques enable researchers to investigate microstructure evolution in situ during metal AM processes. Coupled thermal-microstructure numerical models serve as an alternative approach for predicting grain growth in 3D printed components. The review concludes by summarizing future prospects in mold making and metal AM research in general.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗

Research context

Metals & alloysMaterials processing

OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · Injection Molding Process and Properties

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. W.E. Frazier, Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review, J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2014, 23(6), p 1917–1928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-014-0958-z10.1007/s11665-014-0958-z ↗
2. B. Zhang, Y. Li and Q. Bai, Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review, Chin. J. Mech. Eng., 2017, 30(3), p 515–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10033-017-0121-510.1007/s10033-017-0121-5 ↗
3. Y. Zhang, L. Wu, X. Guo, S. Kane, Y. Deng, Y.-G. Jung, J.-H. Lee and J. Zhang, Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Materials: A Review, J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2018, 27(1), p 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-017-2747-y10.1007/s11665-017-2747-y ↗
4. Midstate Mold, Everyday Items Made in the Plastic Injection Molding Process, 2017 https://www.midstatemold.com/everyday-items-plastic-injection/. Accessed from 9 Dec 2020
5. CustomPart, “Metal Injection Molding (MIM),” n.d., https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/metal-injection-molding. Accessed from 29 Apr 2021
6. Powder Injection Moulding (PIM) International, “Metal Injection Molding: An Introduction,” n.d., https://www.pim-international.com/metal-injection-molding/metal-injection-moulding-introduction/. Accessed from 29 Apr 2021
7. Metal Powder Products (MPP), “Metal Injection Molding (MIM),” n.d., https://mppinnovation.com/metal-injection-molding/. Accessed from 29 Apr 2021
8. Smith Metal Products, “Metal Injection Molding (MIM) Process Options - Tooling for MIM,” n.d., https://smithmetals.com/design-guide/process-options/tooling-for-mim/. Accessed from 29 Apr 2021
9. G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Mold Steels, Tool Steels, 5th ed. ASM International, Ohio, 1998, p 291–29210.31399/asm.tb.ts5.t65900291 ↗
10. J. Kaszynski, “What Do YOU Know About Mold Steel Quality?,” MoldMaking Technology, 2000, https://www.moldmakingtechnology.com/articles/what-do-you-know-about-mold-steel-quality. Accessed from 9 Dec 2020
11. X. Wang, G. Li, Y. Liu, Y. Cao, F. Wang and Q. Wang, Investigation of Primary Carbides in a Commercial-Sized Electroslag Remelting Ingot of H13 Steel, Metals (Basel), 2019, 9(12), p 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/met912124710.3390/met9121247 ↗
12. H.-S. Park and X.-P. Dang, Development of a Smart Plastic Injection Mold with Conformal Cooling Channels, Procedia Manuf., 2017, 10, p 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.02010.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.020 ↗
13. T. Evens, W. Six, J. De Keyzer, F. Desplentere, and A. Van Bael, Experimental Analysis of Conformal Cooling in SLM Produced Injection Moulds: Effects on Process and Product Quality. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, 2019, p 070017, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5084861.10.1063/1.5084861 ↗
14. H.-S. Park, X.-P. Dang, D.-S. Nguyen and S. Kumar, Design of Advanced Injection Mold to Increase Cooling Efficiency, Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Technol., 2020, 7(2), p 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-019-00041-410.1007/s40684-019-00041-4 ↗
15. B.B. Kanbur, S. Suping and F. Duan, Design and Optimization of Conformal Cooling Channels for Injection Molding: A Review, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2020, 106(7–8), p 3253–3271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04697-910.1007/s00170-019-04697-9 ↗
16. D. Cormier, O. Harrysson and H. West, Characterization of H13 Steel Produced via Electron Beam Melting, Rapid Prototyp. J., 2004, 10(1), p 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1108/1355254041051251610.1108/13552540410512516 ↗
17. J. Choi and Y. Chang, Characteristics of Laser Aided Direct Metal/Material Deposition Process for Tool Steel, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., 2005, 45(4–5), p 597–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.08.01410.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.08.014 ↗
18. M.K. Alam, M. Mehdi, R.J. Urbanic and A. Edrisy, Mechanical Behavior of Additive Manufactured AISI 420 Martensitic Stainless Steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2020, 773, p 138815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.13881510.1016/j.msea.2019.138815 ↗
19. Y. Yao, K. Wang, X. Wang, L. Li, W. Cai, S. Kelly, N. Esparragoza, M. Rosser and F. Yan, Microstructural Heterogeneity and Mechanical Anisotropy of 18Ni-330 Maraging Steel Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting: The Effect of Build Orientation and Height, J. Mater. Res., 2020, 35(15), p 2065–2076. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2020.12610.1557/jmr.2020.126 ↗
20. J.-Y. Chen, K. Conlon, L. Xue and R. Rogge, Experimental Study of Residual Stresses in Laser Clad AISI P20 Tool Steel on Pre-Hardened Wrought P20 Substrate, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2010, 527(27–28), p 7265–7273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2010.07.09810.1016/j.msea.2010.07.098 ↗
21. Y. Zhou, L. Duan, X. Ji, S. Wen, Q. Wei, F. Ye and Y. Shi, Comparisons on Microstructure, Mechanical and Corrosion Resistant Property of S136 Mold Steel Processed by Selective Laser Melting from Two Pre-Alloy Powders with Trace Element Differences, Opt. Laser Technol., 2018, 108, p 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2018.06.05710.1016/j.optlastec.2018.06.057 ↗
22. S.D. Nath, E. Clinning, G. Gupta, V. Wuelfrath-Poirier, G. L’Espérance, O. Gulsoy, M. Kearns and S.V. Atre, Effects of Nb and Mo on the Microstructure and Properties of 420 Stainless Steel Processed by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion, Addit. Manuf., 2019, 28, p 682–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.06.01610.1016/j.addma.2019.06.016 ↗
23. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, “Dynamic Transmission Electron Microscope (DTEM),” n.d., https://pls.llnl.gov/resources/materials-science/dynamic-transmission-electron-microscope. Accessed from 7 Dec 2020
24. J.T. McKeown, A.J. Clarke and J.M.K. Wiezorek, Imaging Transient Solidification Behavior, MRS Bull., 2020, 45(11), p 916–926. https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2020.27310.1557/mrs.2020.273 ↗
25. T. LaGrange, M.R. Armstrong, K. Boyden, C.G. Brown, G.H. Campbell, J.D. Colvin, W.J. DeHope, A.M. Frank, D.J. Gibson, F.V. Hartemann, J.S. Kim, W.E. King, B.J. Pyke, B.W. Reed, M.D. Shirk, R.M. Shuttlesworth, B.C. Stuart, B.R. Torralva and N.D. Browning, Single-Shot Dynamic Transmission Electron Microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2006, 89(4), p 044105. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.223626310.1063/1.2236263 ↗
26. T. LaGrange, B.W. Reed and D.J. Masiel, Movie-Mode Dynamic Electron Microscopy, MRS Bull., 2015, 40(1), p 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2014.28210.1557/mrs.2014.282 ↗
27. J.T. McKeown, K. Zweiacker, C. Liu, D.R. Coughlin, A.J. Clarke, J.K. Baldwin, J.W. Gibbs, J.D. Roehling, S.D. Imhoff, P.J. Gibbs, D. Tourret, J.M.K. Wiezorek and G.H. Campbell, Time-Resolved In Situ Measurements During Rapid Alloy Solidification: Experimental Insight for Additive Manufacturing, JOM, 2016, 68(3), p 985–999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-015-1793-x10.1007/s11837-015-1793-x ↗
28. European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, “What Is a Synchrotron?,” n.d., https://www.esrf.eu/about/synchrotron-science/synchrotron. Accessed from 7 Dec 2020
29. Advanced Photon Source, “Imaging (XSD-IMG),” 2018, https://www.aps.anl.gov/Imaging. Accessed from 7 Dec 2020
30. T. Sun, W. Tan, L. Chen and A. Rollett, In Situ/Operando Synchrotron X-Ray Studies of Metal Additive Manufacturing, MRS Bull., 2020, 45(11), p 927–933. https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2020.27510.1557/mrs.2020.275 ↗
31. R. Cunningham, C. Zhao, N. Parab, C. Kantzos, J. Pauza, K. Fezzaa, T. Sun and A.D. Rollett, Keyhole Threshold and Morphology in Laser Melting Revealed by Ultrahigh-Speed X-Ray Imaging, Science, 2019, 363(6429), p 849–852. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav468710.1126/science.aav4687 ↗
32. N. Kouraytem, X. Li, R. Cunningham, C. Zhao, N. Parab, T. Sun, A.D. Rollett, A.D. Spear and W. Tan, Effect of Laser-Matter Interaction on Molten Pool Flow and Keyhole Dynamics, Phys. Rev. Appl., 2019, 11(6), p 064054. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevApplied.11.06405410.1103/PhysRevApplied.11.064054 ↗
33. N.D. Parab, C. Zhao, R. Cunningham, L.I. Escano, K. Fezzaa, W. Everhart, A.D. Rollett, L. Chen and T. Sun, Ultrafast X-Ray Imaging of Laser-Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes, J. Synchrotron Radiat., 2018, 25(5), p 1467–1477. https://doi.org/10.1107/S160057751800955410.1107/S1600577518009554 ↗
34. A. Bobel, L.G. Hector, I. Chelladurai, A.K. Sachdev, T. Brown, W.A. Poling, R. Kubic, B. Gould, C. Zhao, N. Parab, A. Greco and T. Sun, In Situ Synchrotron X-Ray Imaging of 4140 Steel Laser Powder Bed Fusion, Materialia, 2019, 6, p 100306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2019.10030610.1016/j.mtla.2019.100306 ↗
35. S.A. Khairallah, A.T. Anderson, A. Rubenchik and W.E. King, Laser Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: Physics of Complex Melt Flow and Formation Mechanisms of Pores Spatter, and Denudation Zones, Acta Mater., 2016, 108, p 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.01410.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014 ↗
36. C. Zhao, K. Fezzaa, R.W. Cunningham, H. Wen, F. De. Carlo, L. Chen, A.D. Rollett and T. Sun, Real-Time Monitoring of Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process Using High-Speed X-Ray Imaging and Diffraction, Sci. Rep., 2017, 7(1), p 3602. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03761-210.1038/s41598-017-03761-2 ↗
37. S.M.H. Hojjatzadeh, N.D. Parab, Q. Guo, M. Qu, L. Xiong, C. Zhao, L.I. Escano, K. Fezzaa, W. Everhart, T. Sun and L. Chen, Direct Observation of Pore Formation Mechanisms during LPBF Additive Manufacturing Process and High Energy Density Laser Welding, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., 2020, 153, p 103555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2020.10355510.1016/j.ijmachtools.2020.103555 ↗
38. S.M.H. Hojjatzadeh, N.D. Parab, W. Yan, Q. Guo, L. Xiong, C. Zhao, M. Qu, L.I. Escano, X. Xiao, K. Fezzaa, W. Everhart, T. Sun and L. Chen, Pore Elimination Mechanisms during 3D Printing of Metals, Nat. Commun., 2019, 10(1), p 3088. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10973-910.1038/s41467-019-10973-9 ↗
39. N.T. Aboulkhair, N.M. Everitt, I. Ashcroft and C. Tuck, Reducing Porosity in AlSi10Mg Parts Processed by Selective Laser Melting, Addit. Manuf., 2014, 1–4, p 77–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.00110.1016/j.addma.2014.08.001 ↗
40. K. Kempen, L. Thijs, B. Vrancken, S. Buls, J. Van Humbeeck, and J.P. Kruth, “Producing Crack-Free, High Density M2 HSS Parts by Selective Laser Melting: Pre-Heating the Baseplate. In: 24th International SFF Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference, SFF 2013, 2013, p 131–139
41. Y. Kok, X.P. Tan, P. Wang, M.L.S. Nai, N.H. Loh, E. Liu and S.B. Tor, Anisotropy and Heterogeneity of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Critical Review, Mater. Des., 2018, 139, p 565–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.02110.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.021 ↗
42. X. Zhang, C.J. Yocom, B. Mao and Y. Liao, Microstructure Evolution during Selective Laser Melting of Metallic Materials: A Review, J. Laser Appl., 2019, 31(3), p 031201. https://doi.org/10.2351/1.508520610.2351/1.5085206 ↗
43. E.V. Pereloma, A. Shekhter, M.K. Miller and S.P. Ringer, Ageing Behaviour of an Fe–20Ni–18Mn–16Ti–059Al Wt% Maraging Alloy: Clustering Precipitation and Hardening, Acta Mater., 2004, 52(19), p 5589–5602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2004.08.01810.1016/j.actamat.2004.08.018 ↗
44. E.A. Jägle, Z. Sheng, P. Kürnsteiner, S. Ocylok, A. Weisheit and D. Raabe, Comparison of Maraging Steel Micro- and Nanostructure Produced Conventionally and by Laser Additive Manufacturing, Materials, 2017, 10(1), p 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1001000810.3390/ma10010008 ↗
45. Y. Zhang, G. Yu and X. He, Numerical Study of Thermal History in Laser Aided Direct Metal Deposition Process, Sci. China Phys. Mech. Astron., 2012, 55(8), p 1431–1438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11433-012-4793-710.1007/s11433-012-4793-7 ↗
46. M.H. Farshidianfar, A. Khajepour and A.P. Gerlich, Effect of Real-Time Cooling Rate on Microstructure in Laser Additive Manufacturing, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2016, 231, p 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.01.01710.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.01.017 ↗
47. P.A. Hooper, Melt Pool Temperature and Cooling Rates in Laser Powder Bed Fusion, Addit. Manuf., 2018, 22, p 548–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.05.03210.1016/j.addma.2018.05.032 ↗
48. S.W. Xu, K. Oh-ishi, S. Kamado, H. Takahashi and T. Homma, Effects of Different Cooling Rates during Two Casting Processes on the Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Extruded Mg–Al–Ca–Mn Alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2012, 542, p 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.02.03410.1016/j.msea.2012.02.034 ↗
49. M.C. Flemings, Solidification Processing, Materials Science and Technology. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, 2006, p 4
50. P. Schempp, C. Cross, A. Pittner, G. Oder, R.S. Neumann, H. Rooch, I. Dörfel, W. Österle and M. Rethmeier, Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part I - Grain Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition and Grain Refiner Content, Weld. J., 2014, 93, p 53s–59s.
51. P. Schempp, C. Cross, A. Pittner and M. Rethmeier, Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 - Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, Weld. J., 2014, 93, p 69s–77s.
52. Star Rapid, “How To Choose The Right Material For Plastic Injection Mold Tools,” n.d., https://www.starrapid.com/blog/how-to-choose-the-right-material-for-plastic-injection-mold-tools/. Accessed from 11 Dec 2020
53. ICOMold, “Injection Mold Materials,” n.d., https://icomold.com/injection-mold-materials/. Accessed from 11 Dec 2020
54. International Mold Steel, “S-Star 420 ESR Stainless Steel for Plastic Molds,” MatWeb, n.d., http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?matguid=1d44d407531c458799b92f3776bb651f. Accessed from 9 Dec 2020
55. Otai Special Steel, “S136 Mold Steel,” n.d., https://www.otaisteel.com/s136-mold-steel/. Accessed from 11 Dec 202
56. J. Mazumder, J. Choi, K. Nagarathnam, J. Koch and D. Hetzner, The Direct Metal Deposition of H13 Tool Steel for 3-D Components, JOM, 1997, 49(5), p 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0291468710.1007/BF02914687 ↗
57. J. Mazumder, A. Schifferer and J. Choi, Direct Materials Deposition: Designed Macro and Microstructure, Mater. Res. Innov., 1999, 3(3), p 118–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10019005013710.1007/s100190050137 ↗
58. G. Telasang, J. Dutta Majumdar, N. Wasekar, G. Padmanabham and I. Manna, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Laser Clad and Post-Cladding Tempered AISI H13 Tool Steel, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2015, 46(5), p 2309–2321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-015-2757-z10.1007/s11661-015-2757-z ↗
59. M. Lin, X. Zhao, L. Han, Q. Liu and J. Gu, Microstructural Evolution and Carbide Precipitation in a Heat-Treated H13 Hot Work Mold Steel, Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal., 2016, 5(6), p 520–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13632-016-0318-510.1007/s13632-016-0318-5 ↗
60. R. Mertens, B. Vrancken, N. Holmstock, Y. Kinds, J.-P. Kruth and J. Van Humbeeck, Influence of Powder Bed Preheating on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of H13 Tool Steel SLM Parts, Phys. Procedia, 2016, 83, p 882–890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.09210.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.092 ↗
61. J. Šafka, M. Ackermann and L. Voleský, Structural Properties of H13 Tool Steel Parts Produced with Use of Selective Laser Melting Technology, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2016, 709, p 012004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/709/1/01200410.1088/1742-6596/709/1/012004 ↗
62. M. Åsberg, G. Fredriksson, S. Hatami, W. Fredriksson and P. Krakhmalev, Influence of Post Treatment on Microstructure, Porosity and Mechanical Properties of Additive Manufactured H13 Tool Steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 742, p 584–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.08.04610.1016/j.msea.2018.08.046 ↗
63. J.J. Yan, D.L. Zheng, H.X. Li, X. Jia, J.F. Sun, Y.L. Li, M. Qian and M. Yan, Selective Laser Melting of H13: Microstructure and Residual Stress, J. Mater. Sci., 2017, 52(20), p 12476–12485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1380-310.1007/s10853-017-1380-3 ↗
64. F. Deirmina, N. Peghini, B. AlMangour, D. Grzesiak and M. Pellizzari, Heat Treatment and Properties of a Hot Work Tool Steel Fabricated by Additive Manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 753, p 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.03.02710.1016/j.msea.2019.03.027 ↗
65. B. Ren, D. Lu, R. Zhou, Z. Li and J. Guan, Preparation and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted H13 Steel, J. Mater. Res., 2019, 34(08), p 1415–1425. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2019.1010.1557/jmr.2019.10 ↗
66. Y. He, M. Zhong, J. Beuth and B. Webler, A Study of Microstructure and Cracking Behavior of H13 Tool Steel Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion Using Single-Tracks, Multi-Track Pads, and 3D Cubes, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2020, 286, p 116802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.11680210.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116802 ↗
67. H.X. Li, H.L. Qi, C.H. Song, Y.L. Li and M. Yan, Selective Laser Melting of P20 Mould Steel: Investigation on the Resultant Microstructure, High-Temperature Hardness and Corrosion Resistance, Powder Metall., 2018, 61(1), p 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00325899.2017.136896510.1080/00325899.2017.1368965 ↗
68. P. Krakhmalev, I. Yadroitsava, G. Fredriksson and I. Yadroitsev, In Situ Heat Treatment in Selective Laser Melted Martensitic AISI 420 Stainless Steels, Mater. Des., 2015, 87, p 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.08.04510.1016/j.matdes.2015.08.045 ↗
69. X. Zhao, B. Song, Y. Zhang, X. Zhu, Q. Wei and Y. Shi, Decarburization of Stainless Steel during Selective Laser Melting and Its Influence on Young’s Modulus, Hardness and Tensile Strength, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2015, 647, p 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.08.06110.1016/j.msea.2015.08.061 ↗
70. X. Zhao, Q. Wei, B. Song, Y. Liu, X. Luo, S. Wen and Y. Shi, Fabrication and Characterization of AISI 420 Stainless Steel Using Selective Laser Melting, Mater. Manuf. Process., 2015, 30(11), p 1283–1289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2015.102635110.1080/10426914.2015.1026351 ↗
71. S. Sun, D. Fabijanic, C. Barr, Q. Liu, K. Walker, N. Matthews, N. Orchowski, M. Easton and M. Brandt, In-Situ Quench and Tempering for Microstructure Control and Enhanced Mechanical Properties of Laser Cladded AISI 420 Stainless Steel Powder on 300M Steel Substrates, Surf. Coat. Technol., 2018, 333, p 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.10.08010.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.10.080 ↗
72. S.D. Nath, H. Irrinki, G. Gupta, M. Kearns, O. Gulsoy and S. Atre, Microstructure-Property Relationships of 420 Stainless Steel Fabricated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion, Powder Technol., 2019, 343, p 738–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.11.07510.1016/j.powtec.2018.11.075 ↗
73. S.-F. Wen, X.-T. Ji, Y. Zhou, C.-J. Han, Q.-S. Wei and Y.-S. Shi, Corrosion Behavior of the S136 Mold Steel Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting, Chin. J. Mech. Eng., 2018, 31(1), p 108. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10033-018-0312-810.1186/s10033-018-0312-8 ↗
74. X. Ji, S. Wen, Q. Wei, Y. Zhou and Z. Chen, Effect of Quenching Treatment on Performance of S136 Steel Fabricated via Selective Laser Melting, J. ZheJiang Univ. Eng. Sci., 2019, 53(4), p 664–670. (in Chinese)
75. W. Sha and Z. Guo, What Are Maraging Steels?, Maraging Steels: Modelling of Microstructure, Properties and Applications, 1st ed. Woodhead Publishing, New Delhi, 2009, p 1–310.1533/9781845696931 ↗
76. Y. Bai, Y. Yang, D. Wang and M. Zhang, Influence Mechanism of Parameters Process and Mechanical Properties Evolution Mechanism of Maraging Steel 300 by Selective Laser Melting, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2017, 703, p 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.06.03310.1016/j.msea.2017.06.033 ↗
77. K. Kempen, E. Yasa, L. Thijs, J.-P. Kruth and J. Van Humbeeck, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted 18Ni-300 Steel, Phys. Procedia, 2011, 12, p 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2011.03.03310.1016/j.phpro.2011.03.033 ↗
78. P. Kürnsteiner, M.B. Wilms, A. Weisheit, P. Barriobero-Vila, E.A. Jägle and D. Raabe, Massive Nanoprecipitation in an Fe-19Ni- x Al Maraging Steel Triggered by the Intrinsic Heat Treatment during Laser Metal Deposition, Acta Mater., 2017, 129, p 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2017.02.06910.1016/j.actamat.2017.02.069 ↗
79. C. Tan, K. Zhou, W. Ma, P. Zhang, M. Liu and T. Kuang, Microstructural Evolution, Nanoprecipitation Behavior and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted High-Performance Grade 300 Maraging Steel, Mater. Des., 2017, 134, p 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.08.02610.1016/j.matdes.2017.08.026 ↗
80. T. Hermann Becker and D. Dimitrov, The Achievable Mechanical Properties of SLM Produced Maraging Steel 300 Components, Rapid Prototyp. J., 2016, 22(3), p 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-08-2014-009610.1108/RPJ-08-2014-0096 ↗
81. G. Casalino, S.L. Campanelli, N. Contuzzi and A.D. Ludovico, Experimental Investigation and Statistical Optimisation of the Selective Laser Melting Process of a Maraging Steel, Opt. Laser Technol., 2015, 65, p 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2014.07.02110.1016/j.optlastec.2014.07.021 ↗
82. S.L. Campanelli, A. Angelastro, C.G. Signorile and G. Casalino, Investigation on Direct Laser Powder Deposition of 18 Ni (300) Marage Steel Using Mathematical Model and Experimental Characterisation, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2017, 89(1–4), p 885–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9135-x10.1007/s00170-016-9135-x ↗
83. A.G. Demir and B. Previtali, Investigation of Remelting and Preheating in SLM of 18Ni300 Maraging Steel as Corrective and Preventive Measures for Porosity Reduction, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2017, 93(5–8), p 2697–2709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0697-z10.1007/s00170-017-0697-z ↗
84. L. Mugwagwa, I. Yadroitsev and S. Matope, Effect of Process Parameters on Residual Stresses, Distortions, and Porosity in Selective Laser Melting of Maraging Steel 300, Metals, 2019, 9(10), p 1042. https://doi.org/10.3390/met910104210.3390/met9101042 ↗
85. T. Bhardwaj and M. Shukla, Effect of Laser Scanning Strategies on Texture, Physical and Mechanical Properties of Laser Sintered Maraging Steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2018, 734, p 102–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.07.08910.1016/j.msea.2018.07.089 ↗
86. J. Mutua, S. Nakata, T. Onda and Z.-C. Chen, Optimization of Selective Laser Melting Parameters and Influence of Post Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Maraging Steel, Mater. Des., 2018, 139, p 486–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.04210.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.042 ↗
87. S. Bodziak, K.S. Al-Rubaie, L.D. Valentina, F.H. Lafratta, E.C. Santos, A.M. Zanatta and Y. Chen, Precipitation in 300 Grade Maraging Steel Built by Selective Laser Melting: Aging at 510 °C for 2 H, Mater. Charact., 2019, 151, p 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2019.02.03310.1016/j.matchar.2019.02.033 ↗
88. R. Casati, J. Lemke, A. Tuissi and M. Vedani, Aging Behaviour and Mechanical Performance of 18-Ni 300 Steel Processed by Selective Laser Melting, Metals (Basel), 2016, 6(9), p 218. https://doi.org/10.3390/met609021810.3390/met6090218 ↗
89. R. Casati, J. Lemke and M. Vedani, Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of As Built, Solution Treated and Aged 18 Ni (300 Grade) Maraging Steel Produced by Selective Laser Melting, Metall. Ital., 2017, 109, p 11–20.
90. Y. Bai, D. Wang, Y. Yang and H. Wang, Effect of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Maraging Steel by Selective Laser Melting, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 760, p 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.05.11510.1016/j.msea.2019.05.115 ↗
91. E.A. Jägle, P.-P. Choi, J. Van Humbeeck and D. Raabe, Precipitation and Austenite Reversion Behavior of a Maraging Steel Produced by Selective Laser Melting, J. Mater. Res., 2014, 29(17), p 2072–2079. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2014.20410.1557/jmr.2014.204 ↗
92. C. Tan, K. Zhou, M. Kuang, W. Ma and T. Kuang, Microstructural Characterization and Properties of Selective Laser Melted Maraging Steel with Different Build Directions, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 2018, 19(1), p 746–758. https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2018.152764510.1080/14686996.2018.1527645 ↗
93. B. Mooney, K.I. Kourousis and R. Raghavendra, Plastic Anisotropy of Additively Manufactured Maraging Steel: Influence of the Build Orientation and Heat Treatments, Addit. Manuf., 2019, 25, p 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.10.03210.1016/j.addma.2018.10.032 ↗
94. S. Yin, C. Chen, X. Yan, X. Feng, R. Jenkins, P. O’Reilly, M. Liu, H. Li and R. Lupoi, The Influence of Aging Temperature and Aging Time on the Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Selective Laser Melted Maraging 18Ni-300 Steel, Addit. Manuf., 2018, 22, p 592–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.00510.1016/j.addma.2018.06.005 ↗
95. J.H.K. Tan, S.L. Sing and W.Y. Yeong, Microstructure Modelling for Metallic Additive Manufacturing: A Review, Virtual Phys. Prototyp., 2020, 15(1), p 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2019.167734510.1080/17452759.2019.1677345 ↗
96. C. Körner, M. Markl and J.A. Koepf, Modeling and Simulation of Microstructure Evolution for Additive Manufacturing of Metals: A Critical Review, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2020, 51(10), p 4970–4983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-020-05946-310.1007/s11661-020-05946-3 ↗
97. J.A. Warren and W.J. Boettinger, Prediction of Dendritic Growth and Microsegregation Patterns in a Binary Alloy Using the Phase-Field Method, Acta Metall. Mater., 1995, 43(2), p 689–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/0956-7151(94)00285-P10.1016/0956-7151(94)00285-P ↗
98. S. Ghosh, L. Ma, N. Ofori-Opoku and J.E. Guyer, On the Primary Spacing and Microsegregation of Cellular Dendrites in Laser Deposited Ni–Nb Alloys, Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2017, 25(6), p 065002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-651X/aa736910.1088/1361-651X/aa7369 ↗
99. M. Fleck, F. Schleifer, M. Holzinger and U. Glatzel, Phase-Field Modeling of Precipitation Growth and Ripening During Industrial Heat Treatments in Ni-Base Superalloys, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2018, 49(9), p 4146–4157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-018-4746-510.1007/s11661-018-4746-5 ↗
100. G. Han, Z. Han, A.A. Luo and B. Liu, Three-Dimensional Phase-Field Simulation and Experimental Validation of β-Mg17Al12 Phase Precipitation in Mg-Al-Based Alloys, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2015, 46(2), p 948–962. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-014-2674-610.1007/s11661-014-2674-6 ↗