A novel thermal imaging approach to visualize current flow distributions in electrodes for dielectric elastomer transducers
Source abstract
Abstract
Dielectric elastomer transducers (DETs) are used in various applications, ranging from actuators to sensors and generators. For optimal performance, homogeneous electrical charging characteristics, which depend on the current flow distribution over the electrode area, are indispensable. To enable the investigation of such current flow distributions, a novel approach using thermal imaging (TI) is presented in this paper. The approach uses high-frequency voltage excitation to induce resistive heating in the DET electrodes and generates temperature maps to visualize the current flow, thus providing insight into the local charging behavior. This way, the effects of electrode geometry, electrical contact layout as well as potential manufacturing-related imperfections can be studied. The paper starts by introducing an experimental setup and the effect of excitation parameters. It subsequently illustrates the method using 50 µm strip-shaped silicone films with different screen-printed carbon black/PDMS electrodes, also taking the effect of mechanical strains into account. The results allow for an interpretation of the effectiveness of electrode design, motivate potential future quality tests and may serve as a validation method for, for example, multi-physics finite element simulation tools.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Dielectric materials and actuators · Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials · Vibration Control and Rheological Fluids
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department Systems Engineering, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
Smart Material Systems, ZeMA - Center for Mechatronics and Automation Technology, Saarbrücken, Germany
References (48)
Show source-provided references
1. AbouelNour Y Gupta N (2023) Assisted defect detection by in-process monitoring of additive manufacturing using optical imaging and infrared thermography. Additive Manufacturing 67: 103483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.10348310.1016/j.addma.2023.103483 ↗
2. Albuquerque FB Shea H (2021) Influence of electric field temperature humidity elastomer material and encapsulation on the lifetime of dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) under DC actuation. Smart Materials and Structures 30(12): 125022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/ac343310.1088/1361-665X/ac3433 ↗
3. Arora S Ghosh T Muth J (2007) Dielectric elastomer based prototype fiber actuators. Sensors and Actuators 136(1): 321–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2006.10.04410.1016/j.sna.2006.10.044 ↗
4. Ashby J Rosset S Henke EM et al. (2022) One soft step: Bio-inspired artificial muscle mechanisms for space applications. Frontiers in Robotics and AI 8: 792831. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2021.79283110.3389/frobt.2021.792831 ↗
5. Benouhiba A Walter A Jahren SE et al. (2025) Breaking the cardiovascular flow barrier for dielectric elastomer actuator-based pumping: Design and characterization. Advanced Engineering Materials 27(2): 2401306. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.20240130610.1002/adem.202570005 ↗
6. Böse H Ehrlich J (2023) Dielectric elastomer sensors with advanced designs and their applications. Actuators 12(3): 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/ACT1203011510.3390/act12030115 ↗
7. Bozlar M Punckt C Korkut S et al. (2012) Dielectric elastomer actuators with elastomeric electrodes. Applied Physics Letters 101(9): 091907. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.474811410.1063/1.4748114 ↗
8. Chen S Yang Y Liu S et al. (2023) In-situ additive manufacturing deposition trajectory monitoring and compensation with thermal camera. Additive Manufacturing 78: 103820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.10382010.1016/j.addma.2023.103820 ↗
9. Danner PM Iacob M Sasso G et al. (2022) Solvent-free synthesis and processing of conductive elastomer composites for green dielectric elastomer transducers. Macromolecular Rapid Communications 43(6): e2100823. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.20210082310.1002/marc.202100823 ↗
10. Fasolt B Hodgins M Rizzello G et al. (2017) Effect of screen printing parameters on sensor and actuator performance of dielectric elastomer (DE) membranes. Sensors and Actuators A Physical 265: 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2017.08.02810.1016/j.sna.2017.08.028 ↗
11. Gareis M, Cabuk O, Maas J (2022) Design of electrode contact for DE transducers under thermal consideration. In: Actuators 2022: International Conference and exhibition on new actuator systems and applications, Mannheim, Germany, pp.1–4.
12. Hajiesmaili E Clarke DR (2021) Dielectric elastomer actuators. Journal of Applied Physics 129(15): 151102. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.004395910.1063/5.0043959 ↗
13. Haroun A Lee C (2022) Dielectric-elastomer-enhanced triboelectric nanogenerator with amplified outputs. Sensors and Actuators A Physical 333: 113270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2021.11327010.1016/j.sna.2021.113270 ↗
14. He Y Du B Huang S (2018) Noncontact electromagnetic induction excited infrared thermography for photovoltaic cells and modules inspection. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics 14(12): 5585–5593. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2018.282227210.1109/TII.2018.2822272 ↗
15. Hoffstadt T Graf C Maas J (2013) Optimization of the energy harvesting control for dielectric elastomer generators. Smart Materials and Structures 22(9): 094028. https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/22/9/09402810.1088/0964-1726/22/9/094028 ↗
16. Horii T Okada K Fujie T (2023) Ultra-Thin and conformable electrodes composed of single-walled carbon nanotube networks for skin-contact dielectric elastomer actuators. Advanced Electronic Materials 9(9): 2200165. https://doi.org/10.1002/aelm.20220016510.1002/aelm.202200165 ↗
17. Hubertus J Neu J Croce S et al. (2021) Nanoscale nickel-based thin films as highly conductive electrodes for dielectric elastomer applications with extremely high stretchability up to 200%. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13(33): 39894–39904. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c1068610.1021/acsami.1c10686 ↗
18. Katzer K Kanan A Pfeil S et al. (2022) Thermo-electro-mechanical characterization of PDMS-based dielectric elastomer actuators. Materials 15(1): 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1501022110.3390/ma15010221 ↗
19. Kleo M Förster-Zügel F Schlaak HF et al. (2020) Thermo-electro-mechanical behavior of dielectric elastomer actuators: experimental investigations modeling and simulation. Smart Materials and Structures 29(8): 085001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/ab8a6b10.1088/1361-665X/ab8a6b ↗
20. Lau GK La TG Foong ESW et al. (2016) Stronger multilayer acrylic dielectric elastomer actuators with silicone gel coatings. Smart Materials and Structures 25(12): 125006. https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/25/12/12500610.1088/0964-1726/25/12/125006 ↗
21. Lee CW Woo S Kim J (2024) A study on defect detection of dissimilar joints in Cu-STS tubes using infrared thermal imaging of induction heating brazing. Processes 12(1): 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr1201016310.3390/pr12010163 ↗
22. Ma X Wang Y Zang W et al. (2024) Fabrication of multi-layer stacked dielectric elastomer actuator with high output force by co-crosslinking of electrode with DE substrate. Composites Communications 47: 101874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2024.10187410.1016/j.coco.2024.101874 ↗
23. Meyer A Wagner M Gratz-Kelly S et al. (2024) Concept studies and application development of textile integrated dielectric elastomer sensors for smart shoe technologies. tm - Technisches Messen 91(3–4): 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1515/teme-2024-001910.1515/teme-2024-0019 ↗
24. Mohd Ghazali FA Mah CK Abu Zaiter A et al. (2017) Soft dielectric elastomer actuator micropump. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 263: 276–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2017.06.01810.1016/j.sna.2017.06.018 ↗
25. Möllmann KP Vollmer M (2007) Infrared thermal imaging as a tool in university physics education. European Journal of Physics 28(3): S37–S50. https://doi.org/10.1088/0143-0807/28/3/S0410.1088/0143-0807/28/3/S04 ↗
26. Moreno D Narvaez D Newell B (2024) Pneumatic bellow actuator with embedded sensor using conductive carbon grease. Sensors 24(16): 5403. https://doi.org/10.3390/s2416540310.3390/s24165403 ↗
27. Porte E Eristoff S Agrawala A et al. (2024) Characterization of temperature and humidity dependence in soft elastomer behavior. Soft Robotics 11(1): 118–130. https://doi.org/10.1089/soro.2023.000410.1089/soro.2023.0004 ↗
28. Rajmanova P Nudzikova P Vala D (2015) Application and technology of thermal imagine camera in medicine. IFAC-PapersOnLine 48(4): 492–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2015.07.08310.1016/j.ifacol.2015.07.083 ↗
29. Rizzello G Loew P Agostini L et al. (2020) A lumped parameter model for strip-shaped dielectric elastomer membrane transducers with arbitrary aspect ratio. Smart Materials and Structures 29(11): 115030. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/abb09e10.1088/1361-665X/abb09e ↗
30. Romasanta LJ Lopez-Manchado MA Verdejo R (2015) Increasing the performance of dielectric elastomer actuators: A review from the materials perspective. Progress in Polymer Science 51: 188–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.08.00210.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.08.002 ↗
31. Rosset S Shea HR (2013) Flexible and stretchable electrodes for dielectric elastomer actuators. Applied Physics A 110(2): 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-012-7402-810.1007/s00339-012-7402-8 ↗
32. Sheng J Chen H Li B et al. (2013) Temperature dependence of the dielectric constant of acrylic dielectric elastomer. Applied Physics A 110(2): 511–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-012-7254-210.1007/s00339-012-7254-2 ↗
33. Shrestha M Lau GK Asundi A et al. (2021) Dielectric elastomer actuator-based multifunctional smart window for transparency tuning and noise absorption. Actuators 10(1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/act1001001610.3390/act10010016 ↗
34. Shrestha M Lau GK Chin YW et al. (2024) A tunable acoustic absorber using reconfigurable dielectric elastomer actuated petals. Communications Engineer 3(1): 11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44172-023-00159-z10.1038/s44172-023-00159-z ↗
35. Son J Lee S Bae GY et al. (2023) Skin-mountable vibrotactile stimulator based on laterally multilayered dielectric elastomer actuators. Advanced Functional Materials 33(23): 2213589. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.20221358910.1002/adfm.202213589 ↗
36. Soosani M Fathalilou M Rezazadeh G et al. (2020) DE-based capacitive micro-speakers for generating directional audible sound. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part L Journal of Materials Design and Applications 234(10): 1325–1334. https://doi.org/10.1177/146442072093483010.1177/1464420720934830 ↗
37. Taheri P Mansouri A Yazdanpour M et al. (2014) Theoretical analysis of potential and current distributions in planar electrodes of lithium-ion batteries. Electrochimica Acta 133: 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.04.04010.1016/j.electacta.2014.04.040 ↗
38. van Kessel R Bauer P Ferreira JA (2021) Electrical modeling of cylindrical dielectric elastomer transducers. Smart Materials and Structures 30(3): 035021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/abde4f10.1088/1361-665X/abde4f ↗
39. Vertechy R Berselli G Parenti Castelli V et al. (2013) Continuum thermo-electro-mechanical model for electrostrictive elastomers. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 24(6): 761–778. https://doi.org/10.1177/1045389X1245585510.1177/1045389X12455855 ↗
40. Willian T Bruch D Motzki P et al. (2025) Detection of inhomogeneities in dielectric elastomer transducers using thermal imaging. In: Electroactive Polymer Actuators Sensors and Devices (EAPAD) Vancouver Canada SPIE May 2025 p.37. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.305136510.1117/12.3051365 ↗
41. Willian TP Fasolt B Motzki P et al. (2023) Effects of electrode materials and compositions on the resistance behavior of dielectric elastomer transducers. Polymers 15(2): 2301736. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym1502031010.3390/polym15020310 ↗
42. Willian TP Pohl S Bruch D et al. (2024) Effects of solvents on the material properties of screen-printed electrodes and a polydimethylsiloxane dielectric for dielectric elastomer transducers. Advanced Engineering Materials 26(10): 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.20230173610.1002/adem.202301736 ↗
43. Wiranata A Ishii Y Hosoya N et al. (2021) Simple and reliable fabrication method for polydimethylsiloxane dielectric elastomer actuators using carbon nanotube powder electrodes. Advanced Engineering Materials 23(6): 2001181. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.20200118110.1002/adem.202001181 ↗
44. Wu J Zhu J Xia H et al. (2019) DC-Biased magnetization based eddy current thermography for subsurface defect detection. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics 15(12): 6252–6259. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2019.289110710.1109/TII.2019.2891107 ↗
45. Xu S Chen Y Hyun NSP et al. (2021) A dynamic electrically driven soft valve for control of soft hydraulic actuators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(34): e2103198118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.210319811810.1073/pnas.2103198118 ↗
46. Yu W Chen W Yuan W et al. (2024) Ultrathin and highly-stable rubber electrodes based on island-bridge multi-filler conductive network for multilayer-stacked dielectric elastomer artificial muscles. Chemical Engineering Journal 493: 152714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.15271410.1016/j.cej.2024.152714 ↗
47. Zanini P Rossiter J Homer M (2015) Modelling the effect of actuator-like behavior in dielectric elastomer generators. Applied Physics Letters 107(15): 153906. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.493331510.1063/1.4933315 ↗
48. Zanini P Rossiter J Homer M (2017) Self-stabilizing dielectric elastomer generators. Smart Materials and Structures 26(3): 035037. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/aa59e610.1088/1361-665X/aa59e6 ↗