Engineering membrane electrode assembly for advanced polymer electrolyte water electrolyzer
Source abstract
Abstract
As an important energy carrier in terms of carbon neutrality, green hydrogen produced by water electrolysis using renewable electricity has attracted worldwide attention. The polymer electrolyte water electrolyzer (PEWE) has the potential to be a mainstay in the green hydrogen market in the future because of its superior performance. However, the development of PEWE is constrained by the slow progress of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which is an essential component of PEWE and largely determines the cost and performance of the system. Therefore, the MEA must be optimized from the aspects of reducing cost and improving performance to promote the development of PEWEs. In this review, we first discuss the recent progress of the materials and design strategies of MEA, including the cost, activity, and stability of catalysts, distribution and thickness of ionomers, and ion transport efficiency of ion exchange membranes (IEMs). Then, the effects of all components and interlayer interfaces on the ions, electrons, and mass transfer in MEA and, consequently, the performance of PEWE are analyzed. Finally, we propose perspectives on developing MEA by optimizing the catalyst activity and stability of IEM, interface contact between adjacent components, and evaluation methods of performance.
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Fuel Cells and Related Materials · Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems · Advanced battery technologies research
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Glenk G, Reichelstein S. Economics of converting renewable power to hydrogen. Nat Energy, 2019, 4: 216–22210.1038/s41560-019-0326-1 ↗
2. Lu S, Zhuang Z. Electrocatalysts for hydrogen oxidation and evolution reactions. Sci China Mater, 2016, 59: 217–23810.1007/s40843-016-0127-9 ↗
3. International Energy Agency. Global Hydrogen Review 2021. IEA Technical Report. 2021
4. Dhabi A. Green hydrogen cost reduction: Scaling up electrolysers to meet the 1.5 °C climate goal. International Renewable Energy Agency Technical Report. 2020
5. Abbasi R, Setzler BP, Lin S, et al. A roadmap to low-cost hydrogen with hydroxide exchange membrane electrolyzers. Adv Mater, 2019, 31: 180587610.1002/adma.201805876 ↗
6. Miller HA, Bouzek K, Hnat J, et al. Green hydrogen from anion exchange membrane water electrolysis: A review of recent developments in critical materials and operating conditions. Sustain Energy Fuels, 2020, 4: 2114–213310.1039/C9SE01240K ↗
7. Schmidt O, Gambhir A, Staffell I, et al. Future cost and performance of water electrolysis: An expert elicitation study. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2017, 42: 30470–3049210.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.10.045 ↗
8. Saba SM, Müller M, Robinius M, et al. The investment costs of electrolysis—A comparison of cost studies from the past 30 years. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2018, 43: 1209–122310.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.11.115 ↗
9. Mayyas A, Ruth M, Pivovar B, et al. Manufacturing cost analysis for proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers. NREL/TP-6A20-72740 Technical Report. 201910.2172/1557965 ↗
10. Li C, Baek JB. The promise of hydrogen production from alkaline anion exchange membrane electrolyzers. Nano Energy, 2021, 87: 10616210.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106162 ↗
11. Li GF, Yang D, Abel Chuang PY. Defining nafion ionomer roles for enhancing alkaline oxygen evolution electrocatalysis. ACS Catal, 2018, 8: 11688–1169810.1021/acscatal.8b02217 ↗
12. Fang B, Chaudhari NK, Kim MS, et al. Homogeneous deposition of platinum nanoparticles on carbon black for proton exchange membrane fuel cell. J Am Chem Soc, 2009, 131: 15330–1533810.1021/ja905749e ↗
13. Antolini E. Carbon supports for low-temperature fuel cell catalysts. Appl Catal B-Environ, 2009, 88: 1–2410.1016/j.apcatb.2008.09.030 ↗
14. Wu X, Scott K. RuO2 supported on Sb-doped SnO2 nanoparticles for polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysers. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2011, 36: 5806–581010.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.10.098 ↗
15. Mazúr P, Polonský J, Paidar M, et al. Non-conductive TiO2 as the anode catalyst support for PEM water electrolysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37: 12081–1208810.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.05.129 ↗
16. Kúš P, Ostroverkh A, Ševčíková K, et al. Magnetron sputtered Ir thin film on TiC-based support sublayer as low-loading anode catalyst for proton exchange membrane water electrolysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2016, 41: 15124–1513210.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.248 ↗
17. Nikiforov AV, Tomás García AL, Petrushina IM, et al. Preparation and study of IrO2/SiC-Si supported anode catalyst for high temperature PEM steam electrolysers. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2011, 36: 5797–580510.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.02.050 ↗
18. Kondo T, Kikuchi M, Masuda H, et al. Boron-doped diamond powder as a durable support for platinum-based cathode catalysts in polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc, 2018, 165: F3072–F307710.1149/2.0111806jes ↗
19. Polonský J, Petrushina IM, Christensen E, et al. Tantalum carbide as a novel support material for anode electrocatalysts in polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysers. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37: 2173–218110.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.11.035 ↗
20. Schuler T, Ciccone JM, Krentscher B, et al. Hierarchically structured porous transport layers for polymer electrolyte water electrolysis. Adv Energy Mater, 2019, 10: 190321610.1002/aenm.201903216 ↗
21. Faustini M, Giraud M, Jones D, et al. Hierarchically structured ultraporous Iridium-based materials: A novel catalyst architecture for proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Adv Energy Mater, 2019, 9: 180213610.1002/aenm.201802136 ↗
22. Oh HS, Nong HN, Reier T, et al. Oxide-supported Ir nanodendrites with high activity and durability for the oxygen evolution reaction in acid PEM water electrolyzers. Chem Sci, 2015, 6: 3321–332810.1039/C5SC00518C ↗
23. Fang Z, Lee MS, Kim JY, et al. The effect of carbon support surface functionalization on PEM fuel cell performance, durability, and ionomer coverage in the catalyst layer. J Electrochem Soc, 2020, 167: 06450610.1149/1945-7111/ab7ea3 ↗
24. Gostick JT, Fowler MW, Ioannidis MA, et al. Capillary pressure and hydrophilic porosity in gas diffusion layers for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Power Sources, 2006, 156: 375–38710.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.05.086 ↗
25. Han B, Mo J, Kang Z, et al. Effects of membrane electrode assembly properties on two-phase transport and performance in proton exchange membrane electrolyzer cells. Electrochim Acta, 2016, 188: 317–32610.1016/j.electacta.2015.11.139 ↗
26. Wang J, Wang H. Flow-field designs of bipolar plates in PEM fuel cells: Theory and applications. Fuel Cells, 2012, 12: 989–100310.1002/fuce.201200074 ↗
27. Maier M, Smith K, Dodwell J, et al. Mass transport in PEM water electrolysers: A review. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2022, 47: 30–5610.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.10.013 ↗
28. Ito H, Maeda T, Nakano A, et al. Effect of flow regime of circulating water on a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2010, 35: 9550–956010.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.06.103 ↗
29. Abdin Z, Webb CJ, Gray EMA. Modelling and simulation of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2015, 40: 13243–1325710.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.07.129 ↗
30. Han B, Mo J, Kang Z, et al. Modeling of two-phase transport in proton exchange membrane electrolyzer cells for hydrogen energy. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2017, 42: 4478–448910.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.12.103 ↗
31. Cai C, Rao Y, Zhou J, et al. Carbon corrosion: A novel termination mechanism of the water electrolysis plateau during voltage reversal. J Power Sources, 2020, 473: 22854210.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228542 ↗
32. Minke C, Suermann M, Bensmann B, et al. Is iridium demand a potential bottleneck in the realization of large-scale PEM water electrolysis? Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2021, 46: 23581–2359010.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.04.174 ↗
33. Bernt M, Siebel A, Gasteiger HA. Analysis of voltage losses in PEM water electrolyzers with low platinum group metal loadings. J Electrochem Soc, 2018, 165: F305–F31410.1149/2.0641805jes ↗
34. Kim H, Choe S, Park H, et al. An extremely low Pt loading cathode for a highly efficient proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer. Nanoscale, 2017, 9: 19045–1904910.1039/C7NR07224D ↗
35. Xie S, Choi SI, Lu N, et al. Atomic layer-by-layer deposition of Pt on Pd nanocubes for catalysts with enhanced activity and durability toward oxygen reduction. Nano Lett, 2014, 14: 3570–357610.1021/nl501205j ↗
36. Liu C, Wang CC, Kei CC, et al. Atomic layer deposition of platinum nanoparticles on carbon nanotubes for application in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. Small, 2009, 5: 1535–153810.1002/smll.200900278 ↗
37. Pan Y, Zhang C, Lin Y, et al. Electrocatalyst engineering and structure-activity relationship in hydrogen evolution reaction: From nanostructures to single atoms. Sci China Mater, 2020, 63: 921–94810.1007/s40843-019-1242-1 ↗
38. Shang C, Cao C, Yu D, et al. Electron correlations engineer catalytic activity of pyrochlore iridates for acidic water oxidation. Adv Mater, 2018, 31: 180510410.1002/adma.201805104 ↗
39. Li H, Tsai C, Koh AL, et al. Activating and optimizing MoS2 basal planes for hydrogen evolution through the formation of strained sulphur vacancies. Nat Mater, 2016, 15: 48–5310.1038/nmat4465 ↗
40. Cheng Q, Hu C, Wang G, et al. Carbon-defect-driven electroless deposition of Pt atomic clusters for highly efficient hydrogen evolution. J Am Chem Soc, 2020, 142: 5594–560110.1021/jacs.9b11524 ↗
41. Liu K, Zhao X, Ren G, et al. Strong metal-support interaction promoted scalable production of thermally stable single-atom catalysts. Nat Commun, 2020, 11: 126310.1038/s41467-020-14984-9 ↗
42. Joo J, Park YJ, Kim J, et al. Mn-dopant differentiating the Ru and Ir oxidation states in catalytic oxides toward durable oxygen evolution reaction in acidic electrolyte. Small Methods, 2022, 6: 210123610.1002/smtd.202101236 ↗
43. Su J, Ge R, Jiang K, et al. Assembling ultrasmall copper-doped ruthenium oxide nanocrystals into hollow porous polyhedra: Highly robust electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution in acidic media. Adv Mater, 2018, 30: 180135110.1002/adma.201801351 ↗
44. An J, Kim YB, Prinz FB. Ultra-thin platinum catalytic electrodes fabricated by atomic layer deposition. Phys Chem Chem Phys, 2013, 15: 7520–752510.1039/c3cp50996f ↗
45. Switzer JA. Atomic layer electrodeposition. Science, 2012, 338: 1300–130110.1126/science.1231853 ↗
46. Wang JX, Inada H, Wu L, et al. Oxygen reduction on well-defined core-shell nanocatalysts: Particle size, facet, and Pt shell thickness effects. J Am Chem Soc, 2009, 131: 17298–1730210.1021/ja9067645 ↗
47. Song Z, Norouzi Banis M, Liu H, et al. Ultralow loading and high-performing Pt catalyst for a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell anode achieved by atomic layer deposition. ACS Catal, 2019, 9: 5365–537410.1021/acscatal.8b04504 ↗
48. Lee WJ, Bera S, Kim CM, et al. Synthesis of highly dispersed Pt nanoparticles into carbon supports by fluidized bed reactor atomic layer deposition to boost pemfc performance. NPG Asia Mater, 2020, 12: 4010.1038/s41427-020-0223-x ↗
49. Cheng N, Stambula S, Wang D, et al. Platinum single-atom and cluster catalysis of the hydrogen evolution reaction. Nat Commun, 2016, 7: 1363810.1038/ncomms13638 ↗
50. Hsieh YC, Zhang Y, Su D, et al. Ordered bilayer ruthenium-platinum core-shell nanoparticles as carbon monoxide-tolerant fuel cell catalysts. Nat Commun, 2013, 4: 246610.1038/ncomms3466 ↗
51. Wang JX, Zhang Y, Capuano CB, et al. Ultralow charge-transfer resistance with ultralow Pt loading for hydrogen evolution and oxidation using Ru@Pt core-shell nanocatalysts. Sci Rep, 2015, 5: 1222010.1038/srep12220 ↗
52. Yarlagadda V, Carpenter MK, Moylan TE, et al. Boosting fuel cell performance with accessible carbon mesopores. ACS Energy Lett, 2018, 3: 618–62110.1021/acsenergylett.8b00186 ↗
53. Castanheira L, Silva WO, Lima FHB, et al. Carbon corrosion in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells: Effect of the carbon structure, the degradation protocol, and the gas atmosphere. ACS Catal, 2015, 5: 2184–219410.1021/cs501973j ↗
54. Forouzandeh F, Li X, Banham DW, et al. Understanding the corrosion resistance of meso- and micro-porous carbons for application in PEM fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc, 2018, 165: F3230–F324010.1149/2.0261806jes ↗
55. Kang S, Ham K, Lee J. Moderate oxophilic CoFe in carbon nanofiber for the oxygen evolution reaction in anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. Electrochim Acta, 2020, 353: 13652110.1016/j.electacta.2020.136521 ↗
56. Paunović P, Gogovska DS, Popovski O, et al. Preparation and characterization of Co-Ru/TiO2/MWCNTs electrocatalysts in PEM hydrogen electrolyzer. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2011, 36: 9405–941410.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.04.014 ↗
57. Shiva Kumar S, Ramakrishna SUB, Rama Devi B, et al. Phosphorus-doped graphene supported palladium (Pd/PG) electrocatalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction in PEM water electrolysis. Int J Green Energy, 2018, 15: 558–56710.1080/15435075.2018.1508468 ↗
58. Song J, Wei C, Huang ZF, et al. A review on fundamentals for designing oxygen evolution electrocatalysts. Chem Soc Rev, 2020, 49: 2196–221410.1039/C9CS00607A ↗
59. Hu S, Ge S, Liu H, et al. Low-dimensional electrocatalysts for acidic oxygen evolution: Intrinsic activity, high current density operation, and long-term stability. Adv Funct Mater, 2022, 32: 220172610.1002/adfm.202201726 ↗
60. Cherevko S, Zeradjanin AR, Topalov AA, et al. Dissolution of noble metals during oxygen evolution in acidic media. ChemCatChem, 2014, 6: 2219–222310.1002/cctc.201402194 ↗
61. Danilovic N, Subbaraman R, Chang KC, et al. Activity-stability trends for the oxygen evolution reaction on monometallic oxides in acidic environments. J Phys Chem Lett, 2014, 5: 2474–247810.1021/jz501061n ↗
62. Li G, Yu H, Wang X, et al. Highly effective IrxSn1−xO2 electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction in the solid polymer electrolyte water electrolyser. Phys Chem Chem Phys, 2013, 15: 2858–286610.1039/c2cp44496h ↗
63. Pham CV, Bühler M, Knöppel J, et al. IrO2 coated TiO2 core-shell microparticles advance performance of low loading proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Appl Catal B-Environ, 2020, 269: 11876210.1016/j.apcatb.2020.118762 ↗
64. Marshall A, Sunde S, Tsypkin M, et al. Performance of a PEM water electrolysis cell using IrxRuyTazO2 electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution electrode. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2007, 32: 2320–232410.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.02.013 ↗
65. Kadakia K, Datta MK, Velikokhatnyi OI, et al. Novel (Ir,Sn,Nb)O2 anode electrocatalysts with reduced noble metal content for PEM based water electrolysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37: 3001–301310.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.11.055 ↗
66. Sun W, Liu JY, Gong XQ, et al. OER activity manipulated by IrO6 coordination geometry: An insight from pyrochlore iridates. Sci Rep, 2016, 6: 3842910.1038/srep38429 ↗
67. Lin Y, Tian Z, Zhang L, et al. Chromium-ruthenium oxide solid solution electrocatalyst for highly efficient oxygen evolution reaction in acidic media. Nat Commun, 2019, 10: 16210.1038/s41467-018-08144-3 ↗
68. Kumari S, Ajayi BP, Kumar B, et al. A low-noble-metal W1−xIrxO3−δ water oxidation electrocatalyst for acidic media via rapid plasma synthesis. Energy Environ Sci, 2017, 10: 2432–244010.1039/C7EE02626A ↗
69. Zhou Z, Zaman WQ, Sun W, et al. Cultivating crystal lattice distortion in IrO2via coupling with MnO2 to boost the oxygen evolution reaction with high intrinsic activity. Chem Commun, 2018, 54: 4959–496210.1039/C8CC02008F ↗
70. Chen S, Huang H, Jiang P, et al. Mn-doped RuO2 nanocrystals as highly active electrocatalysts for enhanced oxygen evolution in acidic media. ACS Catal, 2019, 10: 1152–116010.1021/acscatal.9b04922 ↗
71. Lee H, Kim JY, Lee SY, et al. Comparative study of catalytic activities among transition metal-doped IrO2 nanoparticles. Sci Rep, 2018, 8: 1677710.1038/s41598-018-35116-w ↗
72. Yang L, Chen H, Shi L, et al. Enhanced iridium mass activity of 6H-phase, Ir-based perovskite with nonprecious incorporation for acidic oxygen evolution electrocatalysis. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2019, 11: 42006–4201310.1021/acsami.9b11287 ↗
73. Wen Y, Chen P, Wang L, et al. Stabilizing highly active Ru sites by suppressing lattice oxygen participation in acidic water oxidation. J Am Chem Soc, 2021, 143: 6482–649010.1021/jacs.1c00384 ↗
74. Pi Y, Shao Q, Wang P, et al. General formation of monodisperse IrM (M = Ni, Co, Fe) bimetallic nanoclusters as bifunctional electrocatalysts for acidic overall water splitting. Adv Funct Mater, 2017, 27: 170088610.1002/adfm.201700886 ↗
75. Park DH, Kim MH, Lee HJ, et al. Development of Ni-Ir oxide composites as oxygen catalysts for an anion-exchange membrane water electrolyzer. Adv Mater Inter, 2022, 9: 210206310.1002/admi.202102063 ↗
76. Luo Y, Chiang SW, Tang L, et al. Manipulating electrocatalysis using mosaic catalysts. Small Sci, 2021, 1: 200005910.1002/smsc.202000059 ↗
77. Lv H, Zhang G, Hao C, et al. Activity of IrO2 supported on tantalum-doped TiO2 electrocatalyst for solid polymer electrolyte water electrolyzer. RSC Adv, 2017, 7: 40427–4043610.1039/C7RA06534E ↗
78. Hu W, Chen S, Xia Q. IrO2/Nb-TiO2 electrocatalyst for oxygen evolution reaction in acidic medium. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2014, 39: 6967–697610.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.02.114 ↗
79. Gou W, Zhang M, Zou Y, et al. Iridium-chromium oxide nanowires as highly performed OER catalysts in acidic media. ChemCatChem, 2019, 11: 6008–601410.1002/cctc.201901411 ↗
80. Ghadge SD, Patel PP, Datta MK, et al. Fluorine substituted (Mn,Ir)O2: F high performance solid solution oxygen evolution reaction electro-catalysts for PEM water electrolysis. RSC Adv, 2017, 7: 17311–1732410.1039/C6RA27354H ↗
81. Aizaz Ud Din M, Irfan S, Dar SU, et al. Synthesis of 3D IrRuMn sphere as a superior oxygen evolution electrocatalyst in acidic environment. Chem Eur J, 2020, 26: 5662–566610.1002/chem.201905063 ↗
82. Kim J, Shih PC, Qin Y, et al. A porous pyrochlore Y2[Ru1.6Y0.4]O7−δ electrocatalyst for enhanced performance towards the oxygen evolution reaction in acidic media. Angew Chem Int Ed, 2018, 57: 13877–1388110.1002/anie.201808825 ↗
83. Wang Y, Hou S, Ma R, et al. Modulating crystallinity and surface electronic structure of IrO2via gadolinium doping to promote acidic oxygen evolution. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2021, 9: 10710–1071610.1021/acssuschemeng.0c08887 ↗
84. Tong J, Liu Y, Peng Q, et al. An efficient Sb-SnO2-supported IrO2 electrocatalyst for the oxygen evolution reaction in acidic medium. J Mater Sci, 2017, 52: 13427–1344310.1007/s10853-017-1447-1 ↗
85. Yang L, Yu G, Ai X, et al. Efficient oxygen evolution electrocatalysis in acid by a perovskite with face-sharing IrO6 octahedral dimers. Nat Commun, 2018, 9: 523610.1038/s41467-018-07678-w ↗
86. Datta MK, Kadakia K, Velikokhatnyi OI, et al. High performance robust F-doped tin oxide based oxygen evolution electro-catalysts for PEM based water electrolysis. J Mater Chem A, 2013, 1: 4026–403710.1039/c3ta01458d ↗
87. Oh HS, Nong HN, Reier T, et al. Electrochemical catalyst-support effects and their stabilizing role for IrOx nanoparticle catalysts during the oxygen evolution reaction. J Am Chem Soc, 2016, 138: 12552–1256310.1021/jacs.6b07199 ↗
88. Yun TG, Heo Y, Bin Bae H, et al. Elucidating intrinsic contribution of d-orbital states to oxygen evolution electrocatalysis in oxides. Nat Commun, 2021, 12: 82410.1038/s41467-021-21055-0 ↗
89. Wang H, Lu Z, Xu S, et al. Electrochemical tuning of vertically aligned MoS2 nanofilms and its application in improving hydrogen evolution reaction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2013, 110: 19701–1970610.1073/pnas.1316792110 ↗
90. Luo Y, Li X, Cai X, et al. Two-dimensional MoS2 confined Co(OH)2 electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution in alkaline electrolytes. ACS Nano, 2018, 12: 4565–457310.1021/acsnano.8b00942 ↗
91. Wu MY, Da PF, Zhang T, et al. Designing hybrid NiP2/NiO nanorod arrays for efficient alkaline hydrogen evolution. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2018, 10: 17896–1790210.1021/acsami.8b02691 ↗
92. Kim J, Kim J, Kim H, et al. Nanoporous nickel phosphide cathode for a high-performance proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2019, 11: 30774–3078510.1021/acsami.9b08074 ↗
93. Yao RQ, Zhou YT, Shi H, et al. Nanoporous surface high-entropy alloys as highly efficient multisite electrocatalysts for nonacidic hydrogen evolution reaction. Adv Funct Mater, 2021, 31: 200961310.1002/adfm.202009613 ↗
94. Luo Y, Zhang Z, Yang F, et al. Stabilized hydroxide-mediated nickelbased electrocatalysts for high-current-density hydrogen evolution in alkaline media. Energy Environ Sci, 2021, 14: 4610–461910.1039/D1EE01487K ↗
95. Seetharaman S, Balaji R, Ramya K, et al. Graphene oxide modified non-noble metal electrode for alkaline anion exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2013, 38: 14934–1494210.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.09.033 ↗
96. Yu Q, Luo Y, Mahmood A, et al. Engineering two-dimensional materials and their heterostructures as high-performance electrocatalysts. Electrochem Energ Rev, 2019, 2: 373–39410.1007/s41918-019-00045-3 ↗
97. Hinnemann B, Moses PG, Bonde J, et al. Biomimetic hydrogen evolution: MoS2 nanoparticles as catalyst for hydrogen evolution. J Am Chem Soc, 2005, 127: 5308–530910.1021/ja0504690 ↗
98. Zhang C, Luo Y, Tan J, et al. High-throughput production of cheap mineral-based two-dimensional electrocatalysts for high-current-density hydrogen evolution. Nat Commun, 2020, 11: 372410.1038/s41467-020-17121-8 ↗
99. Yang L, Wang D, Liu M, et al. Glue-assisted grinding exfoliation of large-size 2D materials for insulating thermal conduction and large-current-density hydrogen evolution. Mater Today, 2021, 51: 145–15410.1016/j.mattod.2021.08.009 ↗
100. Zhang C, Tan J, Pan Y, et al. Mass production of 2D materials by intermediate-assisted grinding exfoliation. Natl Sci Rev, 2020, 7: 324–33210.1093/nsr/nwz156 ↗