3D-Printed Zn-based Orthopedic Implants: The Effect of Additives on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Degradation Behavior (Review)
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract The rise of additive manufacturing (AM) has fundamentally transformed the production of patient specific biomedical implants, providing unprecedented flexibility in terms of design and customization. Among biodegradable metals, zinc (Zn) has been recognized as a highly promising material due to its optimal corrosion rate and crucial role in bone metabolism. However, its widespread use is limited by its mechanical drawbacks, such as inadequate strength and ductility, which are critical for load–bearing applications. To overcome these limitations, strategic addition of various elements has been extensively explored. Present review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state–of–the–art in 3D-printed Zn–based implants, with a particular focus on the impact of various additives on their properties. We systematically analyze the influence of key elements including magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), lithium (Li) and others—on the microstructure, mechanical performance, and degradation behavior of 3D-printed Zn-based implants. The review discusses the influence of these additives on the printing processability and the resultant microstructure and properties of the implants, highlighting the mechanisms behind strength enhancement and corrosion modulation.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · Magnesium Alloys: Properties and Applications
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Xia, B., Liu, Y., Xing, Y., Shi, Z., and Pan, X., Biodegradable Medical Implants: Reshaping Future Medical Practice, Adv. Sci., 2025, vol. 12, p. e08014. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.20250801410.1002/advs.202508014 ↗
2. Ramya, M., Advances in Biodegradable Orthopaedic Implants: Optimizing Magnesium Alloy Corrosion Resistance for Enhanced Bone Repair, Biomed. Mater. Devices, 2025, vol. 3, pp. 396–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-024-00208-x10.1007/s44174-024-00208-x ↗
3. Li, S., Cui, Y., Liu, H., Tian, Y., Wang, G., Fan, Y., Wang, J., Wu, D., and Wang, Y., Application of bioactive metal ions in the treatment of bone defects, J. Mater. Chem. B, 2022, vol. 10, pp. 9369–88. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2TB01684B10.1039/D2TB01684B ↗
4. Luo, Y., Liu, H., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, S., Liu, X., and Luo, E., Metal ions: the unfading stars of bone regeneration—from bone metabolism regulation to biomaterial applications, Biomater. Sci., 2023, vol. 11, pp. 7268–95. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3BM01146A10.1039/D3BM01146A ↗
5. Chen, Z., Zhang, W., Wang, M., Backman, L.J., and Chen, J., Effects of Zinc, Magnesium, and Iron Ions on Bone Tissue Engineering, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng., 2022, vol. 8, pp. 2321–35. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c0036810.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00368 ↗
6. Sarraf, M., Rezvani Ghomi, E., Alipour, S., Ramakrishna, S., and Liana Sukiman, N., A state–of–the–art review of the fabrication and characteristics of titanium and its alloys for biomedical applications, Bio–Des. Manuf., 2022, vol. 5, pp. 371–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-021-00170-310.1007/s42242-021-00170-3 ↗
7. Hanawa, T., Biocompatibility of titanium from the viewpoint of its surface, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 2022, vol. 23, pp. 457–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2022.210615610.1080/14686996.2022.2106156 ↗
8. Marin, E. and Lanzutti, A., Biomedical Applications of Titanium Alloys: A Comprehensive Review, Materials, 2023, vol. 17, p. 114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1701011410.3390/ma17010114 ↗
9. Zhao, S., Tayyebi, M., Mahdireza Yarigarravesh, and Hu, G., A review of magnesium corrosion in bio-applications: mechanism, classification, modeling, in–vitro, and in–vivo experimental testing, and tailoring Mg corrosion rate, J. Mater. Sci., 2023, vol. 58, pp. 12158–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-023-08782-z10.1007/s10853-023-08782-z ↗
10. Das, P., Kumar, T.S.S., Sahu, K.K., and Gollapudi, S., Corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue behavior of magnesium alloy bioimplants, Corros. Rev., 2022, vol. 40, pp. 289–333. https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2021-008810.1515/corrrev-2021-0088 ↗
11. Prawin Babu, L. and Radha, R., Advancements in magnesium–based alloys for orthopedic implants: balancing corrosion, mechanical properties, and biological effects (part 1) – a review, Can. Metall. Q., 2025, vol. 64, pp. 2039–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00084433.2024.242745510.1080/00084433.2024.2427455 ↗
12. Dong, H., Lin, F., Boccaccini, A.R., and Virtanen, S., Corrosion behavior of biodegradable metals in two different simulated physiological solutions: Comparison of Mg, Zn and Fe, Corros. Sci., 2021, vol. 182, p. 109278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2021.10927810.1016/j.corsci.2021.109278 ↗
13. Bosch–Rué, E., Diez–Tercero, L., Giordano–Kelhoffer, B., Delgado, L.M., Bosch, B.M., Hoyos–Nogués, M., Mateos–Timoneda, M.A., Tran, P.A., Gil, F.J., and Perez, R.A., Biological Roles and Delivery Strategies for Ions to Promote Osteogenic Induction, Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 2021, vol. 8, p. 614545. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.61454510.3389/fcell.2020.614545 ↗
14. Molenda, M. and Kolmas, J., The Role of Zinc in Bone Tissue Health and Regeneration—a Review, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2023, vol. 201, pp. 5640–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-023-03631-110.1007/s12011-023-03631-1 ↗
15. Pandey, P.M., Singh, N.K., and Singh, Y., Additive Manufacturing: Advanced Materials and Design Techniques, 1st ed., Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1201/978100325839110.1201/9781003258391 ↗
16. Kumar, R., Kumar, M., and Chohan, J.S., The role of additive manufacturing for biomedical applications: A critical review, J. Manuf. Process., 2021, vol. 64, pp. 828–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.02210.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.022 ↗
17. Li, Y., Jiang, D., Zhu, R., Yang, C., Wang, L., and Zhang, L.C., Revolutionizing medical implant fabrication: advances in additive manufacturing of biomedical metals, Int. J. Extrem. Manuf., 2025, vol. 7, p. 022002. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad92cc10.1088/2631-7990/ad92cc ↗
18. Gao, M., Zhang, J., Li, C., Guo, C., Wang, X., Hu, Y., and Xu, W., Progress in pore design within 3D orthopedic scaffold printing and an assessment of osseointegration — Overview review and critical review, Mater. Today Commun., 2025, vol. 48, p. 113551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2025.11355110.1016/j.mtcomm.2025.113551 ↗
19. Wang, C., Wu, J., Liu, L., Xu, D., Liu, Y., Li, S., Hou, W., Wang, J., Chen, X., Sheng, L., Lin, H., and Yu, D., Improving osteoinduction and osteogenesis of Ti6Al4V alloy porous scaffold by regulating the pore structure, Front. Chem., 2023, vol. 11, p. 1190630. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2023.119063010.3389/fchem.2023.1190630 ↗
20. Liu, J., Wang, R., Gong, X., Zhu, Y., Shen, C., Zhu, Z., Li, Y., Li, Z., Ren, Z., Chen, X., Bian, W., Wang, D., Yang, X., and Zhang, Y., Ti6Al4V biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: Fabrication, biomechanics and osseointegration, Mater. Des., 2023, vol. 234, p. 112330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.11233010.1016/j.matdes.2023.112330 ↗
21. Kong, L., Heydari, Z., Lami, G.H., Saberi, A., Baltatu, M.S., and Vizureanu, P., A Comprehensive Review of the Current Research Status of Biodegradable Zinc Alloys and Composites for Biomedical Applications, Materials, 2023, vol. 16, p. 4797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1613479710.3390/ma16134797 ↗
22. Kaveh, M., Badrossamay, M., Foroozmehr, E., and Kharaziha, M., Biodegradability, biocompatibility, and mechanical behavior of additively manufactured zinc scaffolds, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 2025, vol. 163, p. 106868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2024.10686810.1016/j.jmbbm.2024.106868 ↗
23. Chen, K., Gu, X., and Zheng, Y., Feasibility, challenges and future prospects of biodegradable zinc alloys as orthopedic internal fixation implants, Smart Mater. Manuf., 2024, vol. 2, p. 100042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smmf.2023.10004210.1016/j.smmf.2023.100042 ↗
24. Liu, Y., Du, T., Qiao, A., Mu, Y., and Yang, H., Zinc–Based Biodegradable Materials for Orthopaedic Internal Fixation, J. Funct. Biomater., 2022, vol. 13, p. 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb1304016410.3390/jfb13040164 ↗
25. Wen, X., Wang, J., Pei, X., and Zhang, X., Zinc–based biomaterials for bone repair and regeneration: mechanism and applications, J. Mater. Chem. B, 2023, vol. 11, pp. 11405–25. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3TB01874A10.1039/D3TB01874A ↗
26. Chasapis, C.T., Ntoupa, P.S.A., Spiliopoulou, C.A., and Stefanidou, M.E., Recent aspects of the effects of zinc on human health, Arch. Toxicol., 2020, vol. 94, pp. 1443–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-020-02702-910.1007/s00204-020-02702-9 ↗
27. Costa, M.I., Sarmento–Ribeiro, A.B., and Gonçalves, A.C., Zinc: From Biological Functions to Therapeutic Potential, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2023, vol. 24, p. 4822. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms2405482210.3390/ijms24054822 ↗
28. Maret, W., Zinc Biochemistry: From a Single Zinc Enzyme to a Key Element of Life, Adv. Nutr., 2013, vol. 4, pp. 82–91. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.00303810.3945/an.112.003038 ↗
29. Duan, M., Li, T., Liu, B., Yin, S., Zang, J., Lv, C., Zhao, G., and Zhang, T., Zinc nutrition and dietary zinc supplements, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 2023, vol. 63, pp. 1277–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.196366410.1080/10408398.2021.1963664 ↗
30. Li, H., Li, M., Ran, X., Cui, J., Wei, F., Yi, G., Chen, W., Luo, X., and Chen, Z., The Role of Zinc in Bone Mesenchymal Stem Cell Differentiation, Cell. Reprogramming, 2022, vol. 24, pp. 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1089/cell.2021.013710.1089/cell.2021.0137 ↗
31. Molenda, M. and Kolmas, J., The Role of Zinc in Bone Tissue Health and Regeneration—a Review, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2023, vol. 201, pp. 5640–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-023-03631-110.1007/s12011-023-03631-1 ↗
32. Seo, H.J., Cho, Y.E., Kim, T., Shin, H.I., and Kwun, I.S., Zinc may increase bone formation through stimulating cell proliferation, alkaline phosphatase activity and collagen synthesis in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells, Nutr. Res. Pract., 2010, vol. 4, p. 356. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2010.4.5.35610.4162/nrp.2010.4.5.356 ↗
33. Sundar Ray, C., Singh, B., Jena, I., Behera, S., and Ray, S., Low Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) In Adult Population an Indicator of Zinc (Zn) and Magnesium (Mg) Deficiency, Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci., 2017, vol. 5, pp. 347–52. https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.5.3.2010.12944/CRNFSJ.5.3.20 ↗
34. Lee, J.K., Ha, J.H., Kim, D.K., Kwon, J., Cho, Y.E., and Kwun, I.S., Depletion of Zinc Causes Osteoblast Apoptosis with Elevation of Leptin Secretion and Phosphorylation of JAK2/STAT3, Nutrients, 2022, vol. 15, p. 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu1501007710.3390/nu15010077 ↗
35. Meng, G., Wu, X., Yao, R., He, J., Yao, W., and Wu, F., Effect of zinc substitution in hydroxyapatite coating on osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation under osteoblast/osteoclast co–culture, Regen. Biomater., 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbz00110.1093/rb/rbz001 ↗
36. Qiao, Y., Zhang, W., Tian, P., Meng, F., Zhu, H., Jiang, X., Liu, X., and Chu, P.K., Stimulation of bone growth following zinc incorporation into biomaterials, Biomaterials, 2014, vol. 35, pp. 6882–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.04.10110.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.04.101 ↗
37. Qi, S., He, J., Zheng, H., Chen, C., Jiang, H., and Lan, S., Zinc Supplementation Increased Bone Mineral Density, Improves Bone Histomorphology, and Prevents Bone Loss in Diabetic Rat, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2020, vol. 194, pp. 493–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01810-710.1007/s12011-019-01810-7 ↗
38. Tan, J., Li, S., Sun, C., Bao, G., Liu, M., Jing, Z., Fu, H., Sun, Y., Yang, Q., Zheng, Y., Wang, X., and Yang, H., A Dose‐Dependent Spatiotemporal Response of Angiogenesis Elicited by Zn Biodegradation during the Initial Stage of Bone Regeneration, Adv. Healthcare Mater., 2024, vol. 13, p. 2302305. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20230230510.1002/adhm.202302305 ↗
39. Chen, K., Zhou, G., Li, Q., Tang, H., Wang, S., Li, P., Gu, X., and Fan, Y., In vitro degradation, biocompatibility and antibacterial properties of pure zinc: assessing the potential of Zn as a guided bone regeneration membrane, J. Mater. Chem. B, 2021, vol. 9, pp. 5114–27. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TB00596K10.1039/D1TB00596K ↗
40. Ogueri, K.S., Jafari, T., Escobar Ivirico, J.L., and Laurencin, C.T., Polymeric Biomaterials for Scaffold–Based Bone Regenerative Engineering, Regen. Eng. Transl. Med., 2019, vol. 5, pp. 128–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-018-0072-010.1007/s40883-018-0072-0 ↗
41. Zhang, L., Zhang, X., Dai, J., Yang, J., Huang, Z., Han, L., Wang, C., Huang, Z., Guo, C., Bai, J., Xue, F., Chu, P.K., and Chu, C., Surface modification on Zn–based biodegradable metals: recent advances and future perspectives, Surf. Sci. Technol., 2025, vol. 3, p. 35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44251-025-00101-910.1007/s44251-025-00101-9 ↗
42. Mostaed, E., Sikora–Jasinska, M., Drelich, J.W., and Vedani, M., Zinc-based alloys for degradable vascular stent applications, Acta Biomater., 2018, vol. 71, pp. 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2018.03.00510.1016/j.actbio.2018.03.005 ↗
43. Hagelstein, S., Zankovic, S., Kovacs, A., Barkhoff, R., and Seidenstuecker, M., Mechanical Analysis and Corrosion Analysis of Zinc Alloys for Bioabsorbable Implants for Osteosynthesis, Materials, 2022, vol. 15, p. 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1502042110.3390/ma15020421 ↗
44. Pupillo, D., Di Franco, F., Iannucci, L., Grassini, S., Virtanen, S., and Santamaria, M., Following Zn corrosion during long term immersion test in physiological solutions to establish the potential of zinc as biodegradable prosthetic material, Electrochim. Acta, 2025, vol. 531, p. 146411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2025.14641110.1016/j.electacta.2025.146411 ↗
45. Chen, Y., Zhang, W., Maitz, M.F., Chen, M., Zhang, H., Mao, J., Zhao, Y., Huang, N., and Wan, G., Comparative corrosion behavior of Zn with Fe and Mg in the course of immersion degradation in phosphate buffered saline, Corros. Sci., 2016, vol. 111, pp. 541–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2016.05.03910.1016/j.corsci.2016.05.039 ↗
46. Kabir, H., Munir, K., Wen, C., and Li, Y., Recent research and progress of biodegradable zinc alloys and composites for biomedical applications: Biomechanical and biocorrosion perspectives, Bioact. Mater., 2021, vol. 6, pp. 836–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.09.01310.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.09.013 ↗
47. Drelich, A.J., Zhao, S., Guillory, R.J., Drelich, J.W., and Goldman, J., Long–term surveillance of zinc implant in murine artery: Surprisingly steady biocorrosion rate, Acta Biomater., 2017, vol. 58, pp. 539–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2017.05.04510.1016/j.actbio.2017.05.045 ↗
48. Bowen, P.K., Shearier, E.R., Zhao, S., Guillory, R.J., Zhao, F., Goldman, J., and Drelich, J.W., Biodegradable Metals for Cardiovascular Stents: from Clinical Concerns to Recent Zn‐Alloys, Adv. Healthcare Mater., 2016, vol. 5, pp. 1121–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.20150101910.1002/adhm.201501019 ↗
49. Meng, Y., Liu, L., Zhang, D., Dong, C., Yan, Y., Volinsky, A.A., and Wang, L.N., Initial formation of corrosion products on pure zinc in saline solution, Bioact. Mater., 2019, vol. 4, pp. 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2018.08.00310.1016/j.bioactmat.2018.08.003 ↗
50. Kafri, A., Ovadia, S., Yosafovich–Doitch, G., and Aghion, E., In vivo performances of pure Zn and Zn–Fe alloy as biodegradable implants, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Med., 2018, vol. 29, p. 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-018-6096-710.1007/s10856-018-6096-7 ↗
51. Shuai, C., Li, S., Peng, S., Feng, P., Lai, Y., and Gao, C., Biodegradable metallic bone implants, Mater. Chem. Front., 2019, vol. 3, pp. 544–62. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8QM00507A10.1039/C8QM00507A ↗
52. Cuajungco, M., Ramirez, M., and Tolmasky, M., Zinc: Multidimensional Effects on Living Organisms, Biomedicines, 2021, vol. 9, p. 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines902020810.3390/biomedicines9020208 ↗
53. Su, Y., Cockerill, I., Wang, Y., Qin, Y.X., Chang, L., Zheng, Y., and Zhu, D., Zinc–Based Biomaterials for Regeneration and Therapy, Trends Biotechnol., 2019, vol. 37, pp. 428–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.10.00910.1016/j.tibtech.2018.10.009 ↗
54. Almoudi, M.M., Hussein, A.S., Abu Hassan, M.I., and Mohamad Zain, N., A systematic review on antibacterial activity of zinc against Streptococcus mutans, Saudi Dent. J., 2018, vol. 30, pp. 283–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sdentj.2018.06.00310.1016/j.sdentj.2018.06.003 ↗
55. Wątroba, M., Bednarczyk, W., Szewczyk, P.K., Kawałko, J., Mech, K., Grünewald, A., Unalan, I., Taccardi, N., Boelter, G., Banzhaf, M., Hain, C., Bała, P., and Boccaccini, A.R., In vitro cytocompatibility and antibacterial studies on biodegradable Zn alloys supplemented by a critical assessment of direct contact cytotoxicity assay, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 2023, vol. 111, pp. 241–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.3514710.1002/jbm.b.35147 ↗
56. Li, G., Yang, H., Zheng, Y., Chen, X.H., Yang, J.A., Zhu, D., Ruan, L., and Takashima, K., Challenges in the use of zinc and its alloys as biodegradable metals: Perspective from biomechanical compatibility, Acta Biomater., 2019, vol. 97, pp. 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.07.03810.1016/j.actbio.2019.07.038 ↗
57. Katarivas Levy, G., Goldman, J., and Aghion, E., The Prospects of Zinc as a Structural Material for Biodegradable Implants—A Review Paper, Metals, 2017, vol. 7, p. 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/met710040210.3390/met7100402 ↗
58. Aghajani, S., Alizadeh, R., and Mahmudi, R., Enhancing room–temperature mechanical properties and creep resistance of pure zinc through magnesium alloying, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2025, vol. 38, pp. 3159–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.08.16310.1016/j.jmrt.2025.08.163 ↗
59. Aghajani, S. and Alizadeh, R., Severe plastic deformation of Zn and Zn–based alloys, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2024, vol. 33, pp. 6508–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.10.24010.1016/j.jmrt.2024.10.240 ↗
60. Sun, T., Chen, H., Tang, L., Zhu, X., Zhang, Q., Lu, X., Yang, L., and Song, Z., Creep behavior and mechanisms of biodegradable Zn-0.4Li-0.45Mn alloy under physiological and sterilization temperatures at various stress levels, J. Alloys Compd., 2025, vol. 1024, p. 180069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.18006910.1016/j.jallcom.2025.180069 ↗
61. Zhu, S., Wu, C., Li, G., Zheng, Y., and Nie, J.F., Creep properties of biodegradable Zn-0.1Li alloy at human body temperature: implications for its durability as stents, Mater. Res. Lett., 2019, vol. 7, pp. 347–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2019.161010610.1080/21663831.2019.1610106 ↗
62. Mostaed, E., Sikora–Jasinska, M., Ardakani, M.S., Mostaed, A., Reaney, I.M., Goldman, J., and Drelich, J.W., Towards revealing key factors in mechanical instability of bioabsorbable Zn–based alloys for intended vascular stenting, Acta Biomater., 2020, vol. 105, pp. 319–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.01.02810.1016/j.actbio.2020.01.028 ↗
63. Bandekian, S., Baghbaderani, M.Z., Drelich, J.W., Sharif, S., Ismail, A.F., and Bakhsheshi–Rad, H.R., Additive manufacturing of zinc–based biomaterials: Fabrication, performance and property evaluation, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2025, vol. 36, pp. 5484–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.04.12710.1016/j.jmrt.2025.04.127 ↗
64. Meng, F. and Du, Y., Research Progress on Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing of Zinc Alloys, Materials, 2024, vol. 17, p. 4309. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1717430910.3390/ma17174309 ↗
65. Yang, M., Yang, L., Peng, S., Deng, F., Li, Y., Yang, Y., and Shuai, C., Laser additive manufacturing of zinc: formation quality, texture, and cell behavior, Bio–Des. Manuf., 2023, vol. 6, pp. 103–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-022-00216-010.1007/s42242-022-00216-0 ↗
66. Dong, Z., Han, C., Zhao, Y., Huang, J., Ling, C., Hu, G., Wang, Y., Wang, D., Song, C., and Yang, Y., Role of heterogenous microstructure and deformation behavior in achieving superior strength–ductility synergy in zinc fabricated via laser powder bed fusion, Int. J. Extrem. Manuf., 2024, vol. 6, p. 045003. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad392910.1088/2631-7990/ad3929 ↗
67. Zhou, Y., Wang, J., Yang, Y., Yang, M., Zheng, H., Xie, D., Wang, D., and Shen, L., Laser Additive Manufacturing of Zinc Targeting for Biomedical Application, Int. J. Bioprint., 2022, vol. 8, p. 501. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.v8i1.50110.18063/ijb.v8i1.501 ↗
68. Jacob, J., Pejak Simunec, D., Kandjani, A.E.Z., Trinchi, A., and Sola, A., A Review of Fused Filament Fabrication of Metal Parts (Metal FFF): Current Developments and Future Challenges, Technologies, 2024, vol. 12, p. 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies1212026710.3390/technologies12120267 ↗
69. Zhou, L., Miller, J., Vezza, J., Mayster, M., Raffay, M., Justice, Q., Al Tamimi, Z., Hansotte, G., Sunkara, L.D., and Bernat, J., Additive Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Review, Sensors, 2024, vol. 24, p. 2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/s2409266810.3390/s24092668 ↗
70. Vyavahare, S., Kumar, S., and Panghal, D., Experimental study of surface roughness, dimensional accuracy and time of fabrication of parts produced by fused deposition modelling, Rapid Prototyp. J., 2020, vol. 26, pp. 1535–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-12-2019-031510.1108/RPJ-12-2019-0315 ↗
71. Shi, G., Zhang, R., Cao, Y., and Yang, G., A Review of the Vaporization Behavior of Some Metal Elements in the LPBF Process, Micromachines, 2024, vol. 15, p. 846. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi1507084610.3390/mi15070846 ↗
72. Liu, J., Wei, B., Chang, H., Li, J., and Yang, G., Review of Visual Measurement Methods for Metal Vaporization Processes in Laser Powder Bed Fusion, Micromachines, 2023, vol. 14, p. 1351. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi1407135110.3390/mi14071351 ↗
73. Qin, Y., Liu, J., Chen, Y., Wen, P., Zheng, Y., Tian, Y., Voshage, M., and Schleifenbaum, J.H., Influence of Laser Energy Input and Shielding Gas Flow on Evaporation Fume during Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Zn Metal, Materials, 2021, vol. 14, p. 2677. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1410267710.3390/ma14102677 ↗
74. Limón, I., Bedmar, J., Fernández–Hernán, J.P., Multigner, M., Torres, B., Rams, J., and Cifuentes, S.C., A Review of Additive Manufacturing of Biodegradable Fe and Zn Alloys for Medical Implants Using Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), Materials, 2024, vol. 17, p. 6220. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1724622010.3390/ma17246220 ↗
75. Kassym, K. and Perveen, A., Atomization processes of metal powders for 3D printing, Mater. Today Proc., 2020, vol. 26, pp. 1727–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.36410.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.364 ↗
76. Wen, P., Voshage, M., Jauer, L., Chen, Y., Qin, Y., Poprawe, R., and Schleifenbaum, J.H., Laser additive manufacturing of Zn metal parts for biodegradable applications: Processing, formation quality and mechanical properties, Mater. Des., 2018, vol. 155, pp. 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.05.05710.1016/j.matdes.2018.05.057 ↗
77. Wen, P., Jauer, L., Voshage, M., Chen, Y., Poprawe, R., and Schleifenbaum, J.H., Densification behavior of pure Zn metal parts produced by selective laser melting for manufacturing biodegradable implants, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2018, vol. 258, pp. 128–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.03.00710.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.03.007 ↗
78. Yang, Y., Yuan, F., Gao, C., Feng, P., Xue, L., He, S., and Shuai, C., A combined strategy to enhance the properties of Zn by laser rapid solidification and laser alloying, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 2018, vol. 82, pp. 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.03.01810.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.03.018 ↗
79. Voshage, M., Megahed, S., Schückler, P.G., Wen, P., Qin, Y., Jauer, L., Poprawe, R., and Schleifenbaum, J.H., Additive manufacturing of biodegradable Zn-xMg alloys: Effect of Mg content on manufacturability, microstructure and mechanical properties, Mater. Today Commun., 2022, vol. 32, p. 103805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.10380510.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103805 ↗
80. Ning, J., Ma, Z.X., Zhang, L.J., Wang, D.P., and Na, S.J., Effects of magnesium on microstructure, properties and degradation behaviors of zinc–based alloys prepared by selective laser melting, Mater. Res. Express, 2022, vol. 9, p. 086511. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ac88b710.1088/2053-1591/ac88b7 ↗
81. Qin, Y., Wen, P., Voshage, M., Chen, Y., Schückler, P.G., Jauer, L., Xia, D., Guo, H., Zheng, Y., and Schleifenbaum, J.H., Additive manufacturing of biodegradable Zn-xWE43 porous scaffolds: Formation quality, microstructure and mechanical properties, Mater. Des., 2019, vol. 181, p. 107937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.10793710.1016/j.matdes.2019.107937 ↗
82. Lin, Z., Liang, L., Li, Y., Wu, Y., Li, J., Wang, B., Chen, C., and Liu, T., Improved degradable, mechanical, and osteoimmunity–regulating performances of additively manufactured Zn-Mg alloy with heterogeneous microstructure for augmented bone regeneration, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, vol. 516, p. 163897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.16389710.1016/j.cej.2025.163897 ↗
83. Gao, C., Li, C., Peng, S., and Shuai, C., Spiral–eutectic–reinforced Biodegradable Zn–Mg–Ag Alloy Prepared via Selective Laser Melting, Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering: Additive Manufacturing Frontiers, 2022, vol. 1, p. 100022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjmeam.2022.10002210.1016/j.cjmeam.2022.100022 ↗
84. Guaglione, F., Caprio, L., Previtali, B., and Demir, A.G., Single point exposure LPBF for the production of biodegradable Zn-alloy lattice structures, Addit. Manuf., 2021, vol. 48, p. 102426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.10242610.1016/j.addma.2021.102426 ↗
85. Qin, Y., Liu, A., Guo, H., Shen, Y., Wen, P., Lin, H., Xia, D., Voshage, M., Tian, Y., and Zheng, Y., Additive manufacturing of Zn-Mg alloy porous scaffolds with enhanced osseointegration: In vitro and in vivo studies, Acta Biomater., 2022, vol. 145, pp. 403–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.03.05510.1016/j.actbio.2022.03.055 ↗
86. Wang, X., Liu, A., Zhang, Z., Hao, D., Liang, Y., Dai, J., Jin, X., Deng, H., Zhao, Y., Wen, P., and Li, Y., Additively Manufactured Zn‐2Mg Alloy Porous Scaffolds with Customizable Biodegradable Performance and Enhanced Osteogenic Ability, Adv. Sci., 2024, vol. 11, p. 2307329. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.20230732910.1002/advs.202307329 ↗
87. Yao, R., Wang, H., Shan, R., Liu, L., Zhao, Y., Sun, Y., Yao, X., Huang, D., and Hang, R., Biodegradable porous Zn-1Mg-3βTCP scaffold for bone defect repair: In vitro and in vivo evaluation, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2023, vol. 162, pp. 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.03.05510.1016/j.jmst.2023.03.055 ↗
88. Shuai, C., Dong, Z., He, C., Yang, W., Peng, S., Yang, Y., and Qi, F., A peritectic phase refines the microstructure and enhances Zn implants, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2020, vol. 9, pp. 2623–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.03710.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.037 ↗
89. Zhao, S., Zhou, C., Hou, J., Li, P., Che, H., Zheng, Y., Gao, J., Shi, Y., Huang, C., Li, X., Lu, Y., Wu, Y., Zhou, H., Li, Y., and Wang, L., Machine learning–guided process optimization and comprehensive evaluation of additively manufactured biodegradable Zn-2Cu alloy, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2025, vol. 236, pp. 245–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2025.03.02510.1016/j.jmst.2025.03.025 ↗
90. Lan, C., Hu, Y., Wang, C., Li, W., Gao, X., and Lin, X., Phase formation and strengthening mechanism of Zn–2 wt%Cu alloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, Additive Manufacturing, 2024, vol. 85, p. 104153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.10415310.1016/j.addma.2024.104153 ↗
91. Liu, J., Wang, D., Liu, B., Li, N., Liang, L., Chen, C., Zhou, K., Baker, I., and Wu, H., Microstructural evolution, mechanical properties and corrosion mechanisms of additively manufactured biodegradable Zn-Cu alloys, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2024, vol. 186, pp. 142–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.10.05210.1016/j.jmst.2023.10.052 ↗
92. Liang, Y., Dai, J., Zhang, Z., Liu, A., Xu, J., Tang, H., Qi, Y., Li, M., Li, H., Wang, J., Zhao, Y., Wen, P., and Li, Y., Osteogenic and antibacterial enhancement by alloying design and microstructural modification of additively manufactured biodegradable metals, Biomaterials, 2026, vol. 324, p. 123481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2025.12348110.1016/j.biomaterials.2025.123481 ↗
93. Yan, Y., Zhu, J., Yan, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., Shi, C., Liu, Y., Liu, M., Qiu, H., Huang, Q., Yan, X., and Zhang, X., Intensive processing optimization of Zn-Cu fabricated by laser powder–bed fusion, J. Cent. South Univ., 2025, vol. 32, pp. 1194–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-025-5885-710.1007/s11771-025-5885-7 ↗
94. Shuai, C., Xue, L., Gao, C., Yang, Y., Peng, S., and Zhang, Y., Selective laser melting of Zn–Ag alloys for bone repair: microstructure, mechanical properties and degradation behaviour, Virtual Phys. Prototyp., 2018, vol. 13, pp. 146–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2018.145899110.1080/17452759.2018.1458991 ↗
95. An, F., Ma, Z., Sun, K., Zhang, L., Na, S.J., Ning, J., and Yu, H., Influences of the Ag content on microstructures and properties of Zn–3Mg–xAg alloy by spark plasma sintering, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2023, vol. 24, pp. 595–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.05110.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.051 ↗
96. Xie, Y., Zhao, L., Zhang, Z., Wang, X., Wang, R., and Cui, C., Fabrication and properties of porous Zn-Ag alloy scaffolds as biodegradable materials, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2018, vol. 219, pp. 433–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.08.02310.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.08.023 ↗
97. Lu, Y., Liu, A., Jin, S., Dai, J., Yu, Y., Wen, P., Zheng, Y., and Xia, D., Additively Manufactured Biodegradable Zn‐Based Porous Scaffolds to Suppress Osteosarcoma and Promote Osteogenesis, Adv. Mater., 2025, vol. 37, p. 2410589. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20241058910.1002/adma.202410589 ↗
98. Waqas, M., He, D., Wu, X., Tan, Z., Shao, W., and Guo, X., Investigation on the preparation, microstructure, mechanical and degradation properties of laser additive manufactured Zn–Li–Mg alloy for bioresorbable application, J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2023, vol. 26, pp. 8509–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.09.16010.1016/j.jmrt.2023.09.160 ↗
99. Li, S., Yang, H., Qu, X., Qin, Y., Liu, A., Bao, G., Huang, H., Sun, C., Dai, J., Tan, J., Shi, J., Guan, Y., Pan, W., Gu, X., Jia, B., Wen, P., Wang, X., and Zheng, Y., Multiscale architecture design of 3D printed biodegradable Zn–based porous scaffolds for immunomodulatory osteogenesis, Nat. Commun., 2024, vol. 15, p. 3131. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47189-510.1038/s41467-024-47189-5 ↗
100. Qin, Y., Yu, C., Wang, P., Yang, H., Liu, A., Wang, S., Shen, Z., Ma, S., Huang, Y., Yu, B., Wen, P., and Zheng, Y., Design and development of the additively manufactured Zn-Li scaffolds for posterolateral lumbar fusion, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2025, vol. 215, pp. 180–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2024.06.05010.1016/j.jmst.2024.06.050 ↗