Assessing the Performance and Transport Properties of Concrete using Electrical Property Measurements
Source abstract
Abstract
The electrical properties of porous systems are intimately linked to mass transport and flow processes such as diffusion and permeability and offer a simple testing methodology for assessing those properties which are responsible for the durability and long-term performance of construction materials. In the current study, electrical impedance spectra for concretes containing both plain and blended Portland cement binders were obtained over a period of 360 days. In-situ impedance measurements were used to accurately identify the bulk resistance (hence evaluation of resistivity) of the concretes and the optimum frequency range for bulk resistance measurements. The bulk resistivity was normalised by that of the pore-fluid resistivity obtained from computer simulations and the results indicated that the pore-fluid resistivity decreased only marginally with time once the hydration process had advanced beyond 28 days. It is shown that the normalised resistivity – termed the Formation Factor – displayed a continual increase with time, highlighting on-going hydration/pozzolanic reaction and pore structure refinement over the entire test period. This was particularly evident for the slag concretes. Using the normalisation process, a simple approach is presented to evaluate the effective diffusion coefficient of the concretes and a durability/performance classification system, based on the Formation Factor, is presented.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Concrete and Cement Materials Research · Concrete Corrosion and Durability · Smart Materials for Construction
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom.
Sustainable Infrastructure Research Center, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Gyeonggi-do, Korea.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. 1) ACI Committee 222, (2001). “222R-01: Protection of metals in concrete against corrosion.” Technical Report for ACI Committee 222. Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA: American Concrete Institute, 1-41.
2. 2) Alaswad, G., Suryanto, B. and McCarter, W. J., (2018). “Moisture movement within concrete exposed to simulated hot arid/semi-arid conditions.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Construction Materials, 171, 1-15.10.1680/jcoma.18.00012 ↗
3. 3) Alexander, M. G., Mackechnie, J. R. and Ballim, Y., (1999). “Research Monograph 2: Guide to the use of durability indexes for achieving durability in concrete structures [online].” Cape Town, South Africa. The University of Cape Town. Available from: [Accessed 07 March 2020].
4. 4) Alexander, M. and Thomas, M., (2015). “Service life prediction and performance testing - Current developments and practical applications.” Cement and Concrete Research, 78, 155-164.10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.05.013 ↗
5. 5) Andrade, C., Prieto, M., Tanner, P., Tavares, F. and D’Andrea, R., (2013). “Testing and modelling chloride penetration into concrete.” Construction and Building Materials, 39, 9-18.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.08.012 ↗
6. 6) Archie, G. E., (1942). “The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics.” Transactions of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 146, 54-62.10.2118/942054-G ↗
7. 7) Arsenault, J., Bigas, J. P. and Ollivier, J. P., (1995). “Determination of chloride diffusion coefficient using two different steady-state methods: Influence of concentration gradient.” In: L. O. Nilsson and J. P. Ollivier, Eds. Proceedings of the First International RILEM Workshop on Chloride Penetration into Concrete, Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse, France 15-18 October 1995. Paris: RILEM Publications, 150-160.
8. 8) Balestra, C. E. T., Nakano, A. Y., Savaris, G. and Medeiros-Junior, R. A., (2019). “Reinforcement corrosion risk of marine concrete structures evaluated through electrical resistivity: Proposal of parameters based on field structures.” Ocean Engineering, 187, 106167.10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.106167 ↗
9. 9) Bamforth, P., (1993). “Concrete classification for RC structures exposed to marine and other salt-laden environments.” In: M. C. Forde, Ed. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair-93, Edinburgh, UK 29 June 1993. Edinburgh: Engineering Technics Press, Vol. II, 31-40.
10. 10) Bamforth, P. B., Price, W. F. and Emerson, M., (1997). “Contractor report 359: An international review of chloride ingress into structural concrete.” Edinburgh, UK: Transport Research Laboratory, 1-162.
11. 11) Barneyback, R. S. and Diamond, S., (1981). “Expression and analysis of pore fluids from hardened cement pastes and mortars.” Cement and Concrete Research, 11, 279-285.10.1016/0008-8846(81)90069-7 ↗
12. 12) Baroghel Bouny, V., Chaussadent, T. and Raharinaivo, A., (1995). “Experimental investigations on binding of chloride and combined effects of moisture and chloride in cementitious materials.” In: L. O. Nilsson and J. P. Ollivier, Eds. Proceedings of the First International RILEM Workshop on Chloride Penetration into Concrete, Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse, France 15-18 October 1995. Paris: RILEM Publications, 290-301.
13. 13) Baroghel-Bouny, V., Thiery, M. and Wang, X., (2014). “Performance-based assessment of durability and prediction of RC structure service life: Transport properties as input data for physical models.” Materials and Structures, 47, 1669-1691.10.1617/s11527-013-0144-z ↗
14. 14) Bentz, E. C., Thomas, M. D. A. and Evans, C. M., (1996). “Chloride diffusion modelling for marine exposed concretes.” Special Publication-Royal Society of Chemistry, 183, 136-145.
15. 15) Bentz, D. P., (2007). “A virtual rapid chloride permeability test.” Cement and Concrete Composites, 29, 723-731.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.06.006 ↗
16. 16) Berodier, E. and Scrivener, K., (2015). “Evolution of pore structure in blended systems.” Cement and Concrete Research, 73, 25-35.10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.02.025 ↗
17. 17) Beushausen, H., Torrent, R. and Alexander, M. G., (2019). “Performance-based approaches for concrete durability: State of the art and future research needs.” Cement and Concrete Research, 119, 11-20.10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.01.003 ↗
18. 18) Bleszynski, R., Hooton, R. D., Thomas, M. D. and Rogers, C. A., (2002). “Durability of ternary blend concrete with silica fume and blast-furnace slag: Laboratory and outdoor exposure site studies.” ACI Materials Journal, 99(5), 499-508.
19. 19) Broomfield, J. P., (1997). “Corrosion of steel in concrete.” London & New York: E & FN Spon.10.4324/9780203414606 ↗
20. 20) Brouwers, H. J. H. and van Eijk, R. J., (2003). “Alkali concentrations of pore solution in hydrating OPC.” Cement and Concrete Research, 33, 191-196.10.1016/S0008-8846(02)01022-0 ↗
21. 21) BSI, (2006). “BS EN 15167-1:2006: Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete, mortar and grout (part 1): Definitions, specifications and conformity criteria.” London: British Standards Institution.
22. 22) BSI, (2009). “BS EN 12390-2:2019: Testing hardened concrete (part 2): Making and curing specimens for strength tests.” London: British Standards Institution.
23. 23) BSI, (2013). “PD CEN/TR 16563:2013: Principles of the equivalent durability procedure.” London: British Standards Institution..
24. 24) BSI, (2015). “BS EN 1992-1-1:2004+A1:2014: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures: General rules and rules for buildings.” London: British Standards Institution.
25. 25) BSI, (2016). “BS EN 206:2013+A1:2016: Concrete: Specification, performance, production and conformity.” London: British Standards Institution.
26. 26) BSI, (2019a). “BS 8500-1:2015+A2:2019: Concrete: Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1 (part 1): Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier.” London: British Standards Institution.
27. 27) BSI, (2019b). “BS EN 197-1:2011: Cement (part 1): Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements.” London: British Standards Institution.
28. 28) BSI, (2019c). “BS EN 12390-3:2019: Testing hardened concrete (part 3): Compressive strength of test specimens.” London: British Standards Institution.
29. 29) Chen, W. and Brouwers, H. J. H., (2010). “Alkali binding in hydrated Portland cement paste.” Cement and Concrete Research, 40(5), 716-722.10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.12.007 ↗
30. 30) Chen, H. J., Huang, S. S., Tang, C. W., Malek, M. A. and Ean, L. W., (2012). “Effect of curing environments on strength, porosity and chloride ingress resistance of blast furnace slag cement concretes: A construction site study.” Construction and Building Materials, 35, 1063-1070.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.052 ↗
31. 31) Chlayon, T., Iwanami, M. and Chijiwa, N., (2020). “Impacts from concrete microstructure and surface on the settlement of sessile organisms affecting chloride attack.” Construction and Building Materials, 239, 117863.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117863 ↗
32. 32) Christensen, B. J., Coverdale, T. R., Olson, R. A., Ford, S. J., Garboczi, E. J., Jennings, H. M. and Mason, T., (1994). “Impedance spectroscopy of hydrating cement-based materials: Measurement, interpretation, and application.” Journal of American Ceramic Society, 77, 2789-2804.10.1111/j.1151-2916.1994.tb04507.x ↗
33. 33) Collepardi, M., Marcialis, A. and Turriziani, R., (1972). “Penetration of chloride ions into cement pastes and concrete.” Journal of American Ceramic Society, 55(10), 534-535.10.1111/j.1151-2916.1972.tb13424.x ↗
34. 34) Coverdale, R. T., Garboczi, E. J., Jennings, H. M., Christensen, B. J. and Mason, T. O., (1993). “Computer simulation of impedance spectroscopy in two dimensions: Application to cement paste.” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 76(6), 1513-1520.10.1111/j.1151-2916.1993.tb03933.x ↗
35. 35) Delagrave, A., Marchand, J. and Samson, E., (1996). “Prediction of diffusion coefficients in cement-based materials on the basis of migration experiments.” Cement and Concrete Research, 26(12), 1831-1842.10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00170-6 ↗
36. 36) Dhir, R. K., Jones, M. R., Ahmed, H. E. H. and Seneviratne, A. M. G., (1990). “Rapid estimation of chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete.” Magazine of Concrete Research, 42, 177-185.10.1680/macr.1990.42.152.177 ↗
37. 37) Diab, H., Bentur, A., Heitner-Wirguin, C. and Ben-Dor, L., (1988). “The diffusion of Cl- ions through Portland cement and Portland cement-polymer pastes.” Cement and Concrete Research, 18, 715-722.10.1016/0008-8846(88)90094-4 ↗
38. 38) Gallucci, E., Scrivener, K., Groso, A., Stampanoni, M. and Margaritondo, G., (2007). “3D experimental investigation of the microstructure of cement pastes using synchrotron x-ray microtomography (μCT).” Cement and Concrete Research, 37(3), 360-368.10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.10.012 ↗
39. 39) Guimarães, A. T. C., Climent, M. A., De Vera, G., Vicente, F. J., Rodrigues, F. T. and Andrade, C., (2011). “Determination of chloride diffusivity through partially saturated Portland cement concrete by a simplified procedure.” Construction and Building Materials, 25, 785-790.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.07.005 ↗
40. 40) Harris, K. R. and Kanakubo, M., (2015). “Self-diffusion, velocity cross-correlation, distinct diffusion and resistance coefficients of the ionic liquid [BMIM][Tf 2 N] at high pressure.” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 17(37), 23977-23993.10.1039/C5CP04277A ↗
41. 41) Hashimoto, M., Sakata, N., Sakai, E., Yonezawa, T., Hayashi, D. and Muronoi, T., (2016). “Study on concrete for civil engineering structures using high volume blast furnace slag cement.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 14(4), 163-171.10.3151/jact.14.163 ↗
42. 42) Hasted, J. B., (1973). “Aqueous Dielectrics.” London: Chapman and Hall..
43. 43) Higgins, D. D., (1995). “The effect of some test variables on chloride profiles.” In: L. O. Nilsson and J. P. Ollivier, Eds. Proceedings of the First International RILEM Workshop on Chloride Penetration into Concrete, Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse, France 15-18 October 1995. Paris: RILEM Publications, 234-242.
44. 44) Hinrichs, W. and Odler, I., (1989). “Investigation of the hydration of Portland blast furnace slag cement: hydration kinetics.” Advances in Cement Research, 2(5), 9-13.10.1680/adcr.1989.2.5.9 ↗
45. 45) Hooton, R., (1986). “Permeability and pore structure of cement pastes containing fly ash, slag, and silica fume.” In: G. Frohnsdorff, Ed. Blended Cements, West Conshohocken: ASTM International, 128-143.10.1520/STP36395S ↗
46. 46) Hooton, R. D., Pun, P., Kojundic, T. and Fidjestol, P., (1997). “Influence of silica fume on chloride resistance of concrete.” In: L. H. Johal, Ed. Proceedings of PCI/FHWA International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA 20-22 October 1997. Illinois, USA: Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 245-256.
47. 47) Ishida, T., Iqbal, P. O. N. and Anh, H. T. L., (2009). “Modeling of chloride diffusivity coupled with non-linear binding capacity in sound and cracked concrete.” Cement and Concrete Research, 39(10), 913-923.10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.07.014 ↗
48. 48) Ishida, T., Pen, K., Tanaka, Y., Kashimura, K. and Iwaki, I., (2018). “Numerical simulation of early age cracking of reinforced concrete bridge decks with a full-3D multiscale and multi-chemo-physical integrated analysis.” Applied Sciences, 8(3), 394.10.3390/app8030394 ↗
49. 49) Jennings, H. M., Hsieh, J., Srinivasan, R., Jaiswal, S., Garci, M., Sohn, D., Hinners, C., Heppner, S. and Neubauer, C., (1996). “Modelling and materials science of cement-based materials, part 1: An overview.” In: H. Jennings, J. Kropp, K. Scrivener, Eds. Proceedings of the of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Modelling of Microstructure and its Potential for Studying Transport Properties and Durability, Saint-Remy-IesChevreuse, France 10-13 July 1994. Dordrech, Germany: Springer Science and Business Media B. V., 29-62.10.1007/978-94-015-8646-7_2 ↗
50. 50) Johnson, D., Miltenberger, M. and Amey, S. L., (1996). “Determining chloride diffusion coefficients for concrete using accelerated test methods.” In: V. M. Malhotra, Ed. Proceedings of the 3rd CANMET/ACI International Conference on Performance of Concrete in Marine Environment, St Andrews by-the-Sea, New Brunswick, Canada 4-9 August 1996. Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA: American Concrete Institute, 95-114.
51. 51) JSA, (2009). “JIS R 5211:2009: Portland blast-furnace slag cement.” Tokyo: Japanese Standards Association.
52. 52) JSCE, (2007a). “Standard specifications for concrete structures – 2007: Design.” Tokyo: Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
53. 53) JSCE, (2007b). “Standard specifications for concrete structures – 2007: Materials and construction.” Tokyo: Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
54. 54) JSCE, (2010). “Standard specifications for concrete structures – 2007: Maintenance.” Tokyo: Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
55. 55) Kanaya, M., Masuda, Y., Abe, M. and Nishiyama, N., (1998). “Diffusion of chloride ions in concrete exposed in the coastal area.” In: E. Gjorv, K. Sakai, N. Banthia, Eds. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Concrete Under Severe Conditions: Environment and Loading, Tromso, Norway 21-24 June 1998. London & New York: E & FN Spon, Vol. I, 242-249.
56. 56) Kanda, T., Momose, H. and Imamoto, K., (2015). “Shrinkage cracking resistance of blast furnace slag blended cement concrete - Influencing factors and enhancing measures.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 13(1), 1-14.10.3151/jact.13.1 ↗
57. 57) Kato, Y. and Uomoto, T., (2005). “Modeling of effective diffusion coefficient of substances in concrete considering spatial properties of composite materials.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 3(2), 241-251.10.3151/jact.3.241 ↗
58. 58) Khalil, M. A. and Monterio Santos, F. A., (2009). “Influence of degree of saturation in the electric resistivity-hydraulic conductivity relationship.” Surveys in Geophysics, 30, 601-615.10.1007/s10712-009-9072-4 ↗
59. 59) Kim, J., McCarter, W. J., Suryanto, B., Nanukuttan, S., Basheer, P. A. M. and Chrisp, T. M., (2016). “Chloride ingress into marine exposed concrete: A comparison of empirical and physically-based models.” Cement and Concrete Composites, 72, 133-145.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.06.002 ↗
60. 60) Kim, J., McCarter, W. J. and Suryanto, B., (2018). “Performance assessment of reinforced concrete after long-term exposure to a marine environment.” Construction and Building Materials, 192, 569-583.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.151 ↗
61. 61) Kim, J., Suryanto, B. and McCarter W. J., (2019). “Conduction, relaxation and complex impedance studies on Portland cement mortars during freezing and thawing.” Cold Regions Science and Technology, 166, 102819.10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102819 ↗
62. 62) Kim, J., McCarter, W. J. and Suryanto, B., (2020). “Cover-zone protective qualities under corrosive environments.” Journal of Building Engineering, 101618.
63. 63) Kurumisawa, K. and Nawa, T., (2016). “Electrical conductivity and chloride ingress in hardened cement paste.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 14(3), 87-94.10.3151/jact.14.87 ↗
64. 64) Larbi, J. A., Fraay, A. L. A. and Bijen, J. M. J. M., (1990). “The chemistry of the pore fluid of silica fume-blended cement systems.” Cement and Concrete Research, 20(4), 506-516.10.1016/0008-8846(90)90095-F ↗
65. 65) Li, Y. H. and Gregory, S., (1974). “Diffusion of ions in sea-water and in deep sea sediments.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 38, 703-714.
66. 66) Li, P., Su, D., Wang, S. and Fan, Z., (2011). “Influence of binder composition and concrete pore structure on chloride diffusion coefficient in concrete.” Journal of Wuhan University Technology-Materials Science Edition, 26(1), 160-164.10.1007/s11595-011-0189-1 ↗
67. 67) Liu, Z. and Beaudoin, J. J., (1999). “An assessment of the relative permeability of cement systems using AC impedance techniques.” Cement and Concrete Research, 29(7), 1085-1090.10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00093-9 ↗
68. 68) Lu, X., (1997). “Application of the Nernst-Einstein equation to concrete.” Cement and Concrete Research, 27, 293-302.10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00200-1 ↗
69. 69) Luan, Y., Ishida, T., Nawa, T. and Sagawa, T., (2012). “Enhanced model and simulation of hydration process of blast furnace slag in blended cement.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 10(1), 1-13.10.3151/jact.10.1 ↗
70. 70) Lothenbach, B. and Winnefeld, F., (2006). “Thermodynamic modelling of the hydration of Portland cement.” Cement and Concrete Research, 36(2), 209-226.10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.03.001 ↗
71. 71) Lye, C. Q., Dhir, R. K. and Ghataora, G. S., (2016). “Carbonation resistance of GGBS concrete.” Magazine of Concrete Research, 68(18), 936-969.10.1680/jmacr.15.00449 ↗
72. 72) Maekawa, K., Ishida, T. and Kishi, T., (2008). “Multi-scale modeling of structural concrete.” Abingdon, UK: Taylor & Francis.10.1201/9781482288599 ↗
73. 73) Maes, M., Gruyaert, E. and De Belie, N., (2013). “Resistance of concrete with blast-furnace slag against chlorides, investigated by comparing chloride profiles after migration and diffusion.” Materials and Structures, 46(1-2), 89-103.10.1617/s11527-012-9885-3 ↗
74. 74) Mangat, P. S. and Molloy, B. T., (1994). “Prediction of long term chloride concentration in concrete.” Materials and Structures, 27, 338-346.10.1007/BF02473426 ↗
75. 75) Matthes, W., Vollpracht, A., Villagrán, Y., Kamali-Bernard, S., Hooton, D., Gruyaert, E., Soutsos, M. and De Belie, N., (2018). “Ground granulated blast-furnace slag.” In: N. De Belie, M. Soutsos, E. Gruyaert, Eds. Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementitious Materials (State-of-the-Art Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 238-SCM, Working Group 4). Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 1-53.10.1007/978-3-319-70606-1_1 ↗
76. 76) McCarter, W. J., Garvin, S. and Bouzid, N., (1988). “Impedance measurements on cement paste.” Journal of Materials Science Letters, 7, 1056-1057.10.1007/BF00720825 ↗
77. 77) McCarter, W. J. and Brousseau, R., (1990). “The A.C. response of hardened cement paste.” Cement and Concrete Research, 20, 891-900.10.1016/0008-8846(90)90051-X ↗
78. 78) McCarter, W. J., Ezirim, H. and Emerson, M., (1996). “Properties of concrete in the cover zone: Water penetration, sorptivity and ionic ingress.” Magazine of Concrete Research, 48(176), 149-156.10.1680/macr.1996.48.176.149 ↗
79. 79) McCarter, W. J., Starrs, G. and Chrisp, T. M., (2000). “Electrical conductivity, diffusion, and permeability of Portland cement-based mortars.” Cement and Concrete Research, 30, 1395-1400.10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00281-7 ↗
80. 80) McCarter, W. J., Chrisp, T. M., Butler, A. and Basheer, P. A. M., (2001). “Near-surface sensors for condition monitoring of cover-zone concrete.” Construction and Building Materials, 15, 115-124.10.1016/S0950-0618(00)00060-X ↗
81. 81) McCarter, W. J., Chrisp, T. M., Starrs, G., Adamson, A., Owens, E., Basheer, P. A. M., Nanukuttan, S. V., Srinivasan, S. and Holmes, N., (2012). “Developments in performance monitoring of concrete exposed to extreme environments.” ASCE Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 18(3), 167-175.10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000089 ↗
82. 82) McCarter, W. J., Chrisp, T. M., Starrs, G., Adamson, A., Basheer, P. A. M., Nanukuttan, S. V., Srinivasan, S. and Green, C., (2013a). “Characterization of physio-chemical processes and hydration kinetics in concretes containing supplementary cementitious materials using electrical property measurements.” Cement and Concrete Research, 50, 26-33.10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.03.008 ↗
83. 83) McCarter, W. J., Starrs, G., Adamson, A., Chrisp, T. M. and Basheer, P. A. M., (2013b). “Influence of different European cements on the hydration of cover-zone concrete during the curing and postcuring periods.” ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 25(9), 1335-1343.10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000678 ↗
84. 84) McCarter, W. J., Starrs, G., Kandasami, S., Jones, R. and Chrisp, M., (2015a). “Electrode configurations for resistivity measurements on concrete.” ACI Materials Journal, 106(3), 258-264.
85. 85) McCarter, W. J., Taha, H. M., Suryanto, B. and Starrs, G., (2015b). “Two-point concrete resistivity measurements: Interfacial phenomena at the electrode-concrete contact zone.” Measurement Science and Technology, 26(8), Article ID 085007.10.1088/0957-0233/26/8/085007 ↗
86. 86) McCarter, W. J., Chrisp, T. M., Starrs, G., Basheer, P. A. M., Nanukuttan, S., Srinivasan, S. and Magee, B. J., (2015c). “A durability performance-index for concrete: Developments in a novel test method.” International Journal of Structural Engineering, 6(1), 2-22.10.1504/IJSTRUCTE.2015.067966 ↗
87. 87) McCarter, W. J., Suryanto, B., Taha, H. M., Nanukuttan, S. and Basheer, P. A. M., (2017). “A testing methodology for performance-based specification.” Journal of Structural Integrity and Maintenance, 2(2), 78-88.10.1080/24705314.2017.1318040 ↗
88. 88) McCarter, W. J., Alaswad, G. and Suryanto, B., (2018). “Transient moisture profiles in cover-zone concrete during water absorption.” Cement and Concrete Research, 108, 167-171.10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.001 ↗
89. 89) Moradi-Marani, F., Shekarchi, M., Dousti, A., Mobasher, B. and Asce, M., (2010). “Investigation of corrosion damage and repair system in a concrete jetty structure.” Journal of Performance of Constructed Facility, 24, 294-301.10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000112 ↗
90. 90) Nanukuttan, S. V., Basheer, L., McCarter, W. J., Robinson, D. J. and Basheer, P. M., (2008). “Full-scale marine exposure tests on treated and untreated concretes: Initial 7-year results.” ACI Materials Journal, 105(1), 81-87.
91. 91) Neithalath, N., Weiss, J. and Olek, J., (2006). “Characterizing enhanced porosity concrete using electrical impedance to predict acoustic and hydraulic performance.” Cement and Concrete Research, 36(11), 2074-2085.10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.09.001 ↗
92. 92) Nokken, M. R. and Hooton, R. D., (2008). “Using pore parameters to estimate permeability or conductivity of concrete.” Materials and Structures, 41(1), 1-16.
93. 93) NIST, (2019). “Virtual cement and concrete testing laboratory (VCCTL) software, version 9.5. [online].” Gaithersburg, USA. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Available from: [Accessed 01 September 2019].
94. 94) Pack, S. W., Jung, M. S., Song, H. W., Kim, S. H. and Ann, K. Y., (2010). “Prediction of time dependent chloride transport in concrete structures exposed to a marine environment.” Cement and Concrete Research, 40, 302-312.10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.09.023 ↗
95. 95) Page, C. L., Lambert, P. and Vassie, P. R. W., (1991). “Investigations of reinforcement corrosion 1. The pore electrolyte phase in chloride-contaminated concrete.” Materials and Structures, 24, 243-252.
96. 96) Pang, L. and Li, Q., (2016). “Service life prediction of RC structures in marine environment using long term chloride ingress data: Comparison between exposure trials and real structure surveys.” Construction and Building Materials, 113, 979-987.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.156 ↗
97. 97) Patel, R. A., Phung, Q. T., Seetharam, S. C., Perko, J., Jacques, D., Maes, N., De Schutter, G., Ye, G. and Van Breugel, K., (2016). “Diffusivity of saturated ordinary Portland cement-based materials: A critical review of experimental and analytical modelling approaches.” Cement and Concrete Research, 90, 52-72.10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.09.015 ↗
98. 98) Patel, R. A., Perko, J., Jacques, D., De Schutter, G., Ye, G. and Van Bruegel, K., (2018). “Effective diffusivity of cement pastes from virtual microstructures: Role of gel porosity and capillary pore percolation.” Construction and Building Materials, 165, 833-845.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.010 ↗
99. 99) Pedersen, V. and Arntsen, B., (1998). “Effect of early-age curing on penetration of chloride ions into concrete in the tidal zone.” In: E. Gjorv, K. Sakai, N. Banthia, Eds. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Concrete Under Severe Conditions, Tromso, Norway June 21-24 1998. London & New York: E & FN Spon, Vol. I, 468-477.
100. 100) Polder, R. B., (1995). “Chloride diffusion and resistivity testing of five concrete mixes for marine environment.” In: L. O. Nilsson and J. P. Ollivier, Eds. Proceedings of the First International RILEM Workshop on Chloride Penetration into Concrete, Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse, France October 15-18 1995. Paris: RILEM Publications, 225-233.