The role of a melanin-like polymer in carbon steel corrosion by Amorphotheca resinae
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract The diesel fungus Amorphotheca resinae can influence corrosion in fuel infrastructure. We compared six isolates in their interaction with carbon steel using two carbon sources, glucose and a 7% biodiesel (B7) blend. All isolates accelerated uniform corrosion with glucose, while with biodiesel, A. resinae had no effect on uniform corrosion but inhibited localised corrosion. The secretion of a melanin-like polymer occurred only in the presence of glucose and carbon steel. Using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing, we generated and tested melanin-deficient (Δ pks1 , Δ cmr1 ) and constitutive melanin-producing strains of A. resinae . The localised corrosion rates were reduced for melanin-deficient mutants, while the uniform corrosion rates remained unchanged. Addition of secreted melanin to abiotic set-ups increased the uniform corrosion rate. These findings suggest that melanin (cell wall-bound and/or secreted) promotes localised corrosion, whereas secreted melanin accelerates uniform corrosion. The fungus-steel interaction depends both on the cellular physiology and the carbon source, highlighting the complicated role of fungi in carbon steel corrosion.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Corrosion Behavior and Inhibition · melanin and skin pigmentation · Anodic Oxide Films and Nanostructures
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (83)
Show source-provided references
1. Gaylarde, C. C., Bento, F. M. & Kelley, J. Microbial contamination of stored hydrocarbon fuels and its control. Rev. Microbiol. 30, 01–10 (1999).10.1590/S0001-37141999000100001 ↗
2. Passman, F. J. Microbial contamination and its control in fuels and fuel systems since 1980 – a review. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 81, 88–104 (2013).10.1016/j.ibiod.2012.08.002 ↗
3. EPA, U. Investigation Of Corrosion-Influencing Factors In Underground Storage Tanks With Diesel Service. EPA 510-R-16-001. (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2016).
4. He, B. B., Thompson, J. C., Routt, D. W. & Van Gerpen, J. H. Moisture absorption in biodiesel and its petro-diesel blends. Appl. Eng. Agric. 23, 6 (2007).
5. Adrian, V. N., Catalin, N. D. & Radu, C. On some possible effects of using renewable oxygenated fuels in a large marine diesel engine. Energy Reports 8, 966–977 (2022).10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.129 ↗
6. Komariah, L. N. et al. Microbial contamination of diesel-biodiesel blends in storage tank; an analysis of colony morphology. Heliyon 8, e09264 (2022).10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09264 ↗
7. Dodos, G., Konstantakos, T., Longinos, S. & Zannikos, F. Effects of microbiological contamination in the quality of biodiesel fuels. Glob. NEST J. 14, 175–182 (2012).
8. Floyd, J. G., Stamps, B. W., Goodson, W. J. & Stevenson, B. S. Locating and quantifying carbon steel corrosion rates linked to fungal B20 biodiesel degradation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 87, e0117721 (2021).10.1128/AEM.01177-21 ↗
9. Bento, F. M. & Gaylarde, C. C. Biodeterioration of stored diesel oil: studies in Brazil. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 47, 107–112 (2001).10.1016/S0964-8305(00)00112-8 ↗
10. Edmonds, P. & Cooney, J. J. Identification of Microorganisms Isolated from Jet Fuel Systems. Appl. Microbiol. 15, 411–416 (1967).10.1128/am.15.2.411-416.1967 ↗
11. Seifert, K. A., Hughes, S. J., Boulay, H. & Louis-Seize, G. Taxonomy, nomenclature and phylogeny of three cladosporium-like hyphomycetes, Sorocybe resinae, Seifertia azaleae and the Hormoconis anamorph of Amorphotheca resinae. Stud. Mycol. 58, 235–245 (2007).10.3114/sim.2007.58.09 ↗
12. Nicot, J. & Zakartchenko, V. Remarques sur la morphologie et la biologie du Cladosporium resinae (Lindau) de Vries. Rev. Mycol. 31, 48–74 (1966).
13. Parbery, D. G. The natural occurrence of Cladosporium resinae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 53, 15–23 (1969).10.1016/S0007-1536(69)80002-1 ↗
14. Furst, H.-M., Kraepelin, G. & Görisch, H. Detection of Amorphotheca resinae in German soil by an improved selective isolation method. Mycol. Res. 102, 323–326 (1998).10.1017/S0953756297005066 ↗
15. Christensen, C. M., Kaufert, F. H., Schmitz, H. & Allison, J. L. Hormodendron resinae Lindau, an inhabitant of wood impregnated with creosote and coal tar. Am. J. Bot. 29, 7 (1942).10.1002/j.1537-2197.1942.tb10247.x ↗
16. Vries, G. D. Contribution to the knowledge of the genus Cladosporium Link ex Fr, Universiteit Utrecht, (1952).
17. San-Blas, G., Guanipa, O., Moreno, B., Pekerar, S. & San-Blas, F. Cladosporium carrionii and Hormoconis resinae (C. resinae): Cell Wall and Melanin Studies. Curr. Microbiol. 32, 11–16 (1996).10.1007/s002849900003 ↗
18. Krohn, I. et al. Deep (Meta)genomics and (Meta)transcriptome Analyses of Fungal and Bacteria Consortia From Aircraft Tanks and Kerosene Identify Key Genes in Fuel and Tank Corrosion. Front. Microbiol. 12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.722259 (2021).10.3389/fmicb.2021.722259 ↗
19. Cofone, L., Walker, J. D. & Cooney, J. J. Utilization of Hydrocarbons by Cladosporium resinae. Microbiology 76, 243–246 (1973).
20. Muriel, J. M., Bruque, J. M., Olías, J. M. & Jiménez-Sánchez, A. Production of biosurfactants by Cladosporium resinae. Biotechnol. Lett. 18, 235–240 (1996).10.1007/BF00142937 ↗
21. Wang, J. et al. Study of the corrosion behavior of Aspergillus niger on 7075-T6 aluminum alloy in a high salinity environment. Bioelectrochemistry 129, 10–17 (2019).10.1016/j.bioelechem.2019.04.020 ↗
22. Zhang, Y. et al. Corrosion of aluminum alloy 7075 induced by marine Aspergillus terreus with continued organic carbon starvation. npj Mater. Degrad 6, 27 (2022).10.1038/s41529-022-00236-2 ↗
23. McNamara, C. J. et al. Corrosion of aluminum alloy 2024 by microorganisms isolated from aircraft fuel tanks. Biofouling 21, 257–265 (2005).10.1080/08927010500389921 ↗
24. Bento, F. M., Beech, I. B., Gaylarde, C. C., Englert, G. E. & Muller, I. L. Degradation and corrosive activities of fungi in a diesel–mild steel–aqueous system. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol 21, 135–142 (2005).10.1007/s11274-004-3042-2 ↗
25. Little, B. j., Ray, R. I., Hart, K. R. & Wagner, P. A. Fungal Induced Corrosion of Wire Rope Exposed in Humid Atmospheric Conditions. Corrosion, 1–7 (1995).10.5006/C1995-95190 ↗
26. Gerrits, R. et al. A 30-year-old diesel tank: fungal-dominated biofilms cause local corrosion of galvanised steel. npj Mater. Degrad. 10, 18 (2026).10.1038/s41529-025-00731-2 ↗
27. Fang, H. L. & McCormick, R. L. Spectroscopic study of biodiesel degradation pathways. SAE Technical paper. https://doi.org/10.4271/2006-01-3300 (2006).10.4271/2006-01-3300 ↗
28. Cursaru, D.-L., Brănoiu, G., Ramadan, I. & Miculescu, F. Degradation of automotive materials upon exposure to sunflower biodiesel. Ind. Crops Prod. 54, 149–158 (2014).10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.01.032 ↗
29. Fazal, M. A., Haseeb, A. S. M. A. & Masjuki, H. H. Effect of temperature on the corrosion behavior of mild steel upon exposure to palm biodiesel. Energy 36, 3328–3334 (2011).10.1016/j.energy.2011.03.028 ↗
30. Hu, E., Xu, Y., Hu, X., Pan, L. & Jiang, S. Corrosion behaviors of metals in biodiesel from rapeseed oil and methanol. Renew. Energy 37, 371–378 (2012).10.1016/j.renene.2011.07.010 ↗
31. Oh, J.-J. et al. Production and characterization of melanin pigments derived from Amorphotheca resinae. J. Microbiol. 58, 648–656 (2020).10.1007/s12275-020-0054-z ↗
32. Gadd, G. M. & Derome, L. Biosorption of copper by fungal melanin. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 29, 610–617 (1988).10.1007/BF00260993 ↗
33. Fogarty, R. V. & Tobin, J. M. Fungal melanins and their interactions with metals. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 19, 311–317 (1996).10.1016/0141-0229(96)00002-6 ↗
34. Żądło, A. & Sarna, T. Interaction of iron ions with melanin. Acta Biochim. Pol. 66, 459–462 (2019).
35. Jacobson, E. S. & Hong, J. D. Redox buffering by melanin and Fe(II) in Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Bacteriol. 179, 5340–5346 (1997).10.1128/jb.179.17.5340-5346.1997 ↗
36. Breitenbach, R. et al. The role of extracellular polymeric substances of fungal biofilms in mineral attachment and weathering. npj Mater. Degrad 6, 42 (2022).10.1038/s41529-022-00253-1 ↗
37. Volkov, V. V., Sadaf, A. & Perry, C. C. Raman microscopy tracks maturity of melanin intermediates in Botrytis cinerea, a plant pathogen. RSC Adv 13, 1381–1391 (2023).10.1039/D2RA06439A ↗
38. Fetzner, R., Seither, K., Wenderoth, M., Herr, A. & Fischer, R. Alternaria alternata transcription factor CmrA controls melanization and spore development. Microbiology 160, 1845–1854 (2014).10.1099/mic.0.079046-0 ↗
39. Schumacher, J. DHN melanin biosynthesis in the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea is based on two developmentally regulated key enzyme (PKS)-encoding genes. Mol. Microbiol. 99, 729–748 (2016).10.1111/mmi.13262 ↗
40. Frost, R. L., Scholz, R., Ruan, X. & Lima, R. M. F. A thermogravimetric, scanning electron microscope and vibrational spectroscopic study of the phosphate mineral santabarbaraite from Santa Barbara mine, Tuscany, Italy. J. Therm. Anal. 124, 639–644 (2016).10.1007/s10973-015-5183-y ↗
41. Gassen, J. et al. Growth of Paecilomyces variotii in B0 (diesel), B100 (biodiesel) and B7 (blend), degradation and molecular detection. Braz. J. Biol. 75, 541–547 (2015).10.1590/1519-6984.15613 ↗
42. Cuvelier, M.-E., Soto, P., Courtois, F., Broyart, B. & Bonazzi, C. Oxygen solubility measured in aqueous or oily media by a method using a non-invasive sensor. Food Control 73, 1466–1473 (2017).10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.11.008 ↗
43. Xue, F. et al. Effect of residual dissolved oxygen on the corrosion behavior of low carbon steel in 0.1M NaHCO3 solution. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 34, 1349–1358 (2018).10.1016/j.jmst.2017.11.004 ↗
44. Wang, W., Jenkins, P. E. & Ren, Z. Heterogeneous corrosion behaviour of carbon steel in water contaminated biodiesel. Corros. Sci. 53, 845–849 (2011).10.1016/j.corsci.2010.10.020 ↗
45. Malarvizhi, S. & Krishnamurthy, S. R. Microbiologically influenced corrosion of carbon steel exposed to biodiesel. Int. J. Corros 2016, 4308487 (2016).10.1155/2016/4308487 ↗
46. Lee, J. S., Ray, R. I. & Little, B. J. An assessment of alternative diesel fuels: microbiological contamination and corrosion under storage conditions. Biofouling 26, 623–635 (2010).10.1080/08927014.2010.504984 ↗
47. Stamps, B. W. et al. In situ linkage of fungal and bacterial proliferation to microbiologically influenced corrosion in B20 biodiesel storage tanks. Front. Microbiol. 11, 167 (2020).10.3389/fmicb.2020.00167 ↗
48. Planý, M. et al. Fungal-induced atmospheric iron corrosion in an indoor environment. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegradation 159, 105204 (2021).10.1016/j.ibiod.2021.105204 ↗
49. Stratmann, M. & Müller, J. The mechanism of the oxygen reduction on rust-covered metal substrates. Corros. Sci. 36, 327–359 (1994).10.1016/0010-938X(94)90161-9 ↗
50. Volkland, H. P. et al. Bacterial phosphating of mild (unalloyed) steel. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 4389–4395 (2000).10.1128/AEM.66.10.4389-4395.2000 ↗
51. Silva, S. D., Basséguy, R. & Bergel, A. Hydrogenase-catalysed deposition of vivianite on mild steel. Electrochim. Acta 49, 2097–2103 (2004).10.1016/j.electacta.2003.12.048 ↗
52. Heiberg, L., Koch, C. B., Kjaergaard, C., Jensen, H. S. & Hansen, H. C. B. Vivianite precipitation and phosphate sorption following iron reduction in anoxic soils. J. Environ. Qual. 41, 938–949 (2012).10.2134/jeq2011.0067 ↗
53. Knisz, J. et al. Microbiologically influenced corrosion—more than just microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 47, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsre/fuad041 (2023).10.1093/femsre/fuad041 ↗
54. Strycker, B. D. et al. Raman Characterization of Fungal DHN and DOPA Melanin Biosynthesis Pathways. J. Fungi 7, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7100841 (2021).10.3390/jof7100841 ↗
55. Dittrich, M. et al. Microscopic Raman study of fungal pigment using the genetically amenable rock inhabitant Knufia petricola as a model organism. Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 303, 123250 (2023).10.1016/j.saa.2023.123250 ↗
56. Huang, Z. et al. Raman spectroscopy of in vivo cutaneous melanin. J. Biomed. Opt 9, 1198–1205 (2004).10.1117/1.1805553 ↗
57. Voigt, O. et al. An advanced genetic toolkit for exploring the biology of the rock-inhabiting black fungus Knufia petricola. Sci. Rep. 10, 22021 (2020).10.1038/s41598-020-79120-5 ↗
58. Zhou, Y. et al. A single-nucleotide deletion in the transcription factor gene bcsmr1 causes sclerotial-melanogenesis deficiency in Botrytis cinerea. Front. Microbiol. 8, 2492 (2017).10.3389/fmicb.2017.02492 ↗
59. Oh, J.-J., Kim, J. Y., Kim, Y. J., Kim, S. & Kim, G.-H. Utilization of extracellular fungal melanin as an eco-friendly biosorbent for treatment of metal-contaminated effluents. Chemosphere 272, 129884 (2021).10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129884 ↗
60. Liporagi-Lopes, L. C. et al. Lomentospora prolificans synthesizes several types of melanin. mSphere 10, e00963–00924 (2025).10.1128/msphere.00963-24 ↗
61. Baker, R. P., Chrissian, C., Stark, R. E. & Casadevall, A. Cryptococcus neoformans melanization incorporates multiple catecholamines to produce polytypic melanin. J. Biol. Chem. 298, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101519 (2022).10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101519 ↗
62. Oh, J. J. et al. Genomic Analysis and Assessment of Melanin Synthesis in Amorphotheca resinae KUC3009. J. Fungi 7, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7040289 (2021).10.3390/jof7040289 ↗
63. Cordero, R. J. B. & Casadevall, A. Functions of fungal melanin beyond virulence. Fungal Biol. Rev. 31, 99–112 (2017).10.1016/j.fbr.2016.12.003 ↗
64. Guo, Z. et al. Increased secretion of bacterial pyomelanin caused by light accelerates corrosion of low alloy steel. Chemosphere 359, 142353 (2024).10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142353 ↗
65. Kim, E. et al. Enlisting electrochemistry to reveal melanin’s redox-related properties. Mater. Adv. 5, 3082–3093 (2024).10.1039/D3MA01161E ↗
66. Gan, E. V., Haberman, H. F. & Menon, I. A. Electron transfer properties of melanin. Archiv. Biochem. Biophys. 173, 666–672 (1976).10.1016/0003-9861(76)90304-0 ↗
67. Pilas, B., Sarna, T., Kalyanaraman, B. & Swartz, H. M. The Effect of Melanin on Iron Associated Decomposition of Hydrogen-Peroxide. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 4, 285–293 (1988).10.1016/0891-5849(88)90049-4 ↗
68. Schütz, M. K., Schlegel, M. L., Libert, M. & Bildstein, O. Impact of iron-reducing bacteria on the corrosion rate of carbon steel under simulated geological disposal conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 7483–7490 (2015).10.1021/acs.est.5b00693 ↗
69. Gerrits, R. An Experimental Study of Fungal Olivine Weathering, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany, (2019).
70. Usher, K. M., Kaksonen, A. H., Cole, I. & Marney, D. Critical review: Microbially influenced corrosion of buried carbon steel pipes. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegradation 93, 84–106 (2014).10.1016/j.ibiod.2014.05.007 ↗
71. Norin, M. & Vinka, T.-G. Corrosion of carbon steel in filling material in an urban environment. Mater. Corros. 54, 641–651 (2003).10.1002/maco.200303680 ↗
72. Fonken, G. S. & Murray, H. C.to The Upjohn Co. Process for the production of 17β-acetoxyandrostenes. US Patent 2,967,803, issued January 10, 1961 (1961).
73. DSMZ. Amorphotheca resinae DSM 1203. https://www.dsmz.de/collection/catalogue/details/culture/DSM-1203 (2024).
74. Fonken, G. S., Murray, H. C. & Reineke, L. M. Pathway of progesterone oxidation by Cladosporium resinae. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 82, 5507–5508 (1960).10.1021/ja01505a053 ↗
75. Parbery, D. G. The Kerosene Fungus, Amorphotheca Resinae: Its Biology, Taxonomy and Control, University of Melbourne, (1970).
76. Schumacher, J. Tools for Botrytis cinerea: new expression vectors make the gray mold fungus more accessible to cell biology approaches. Fungal Genet Biol 49, 483–497 (2012).10.1016/j.fgb.2012.03.005 ↗
77. Erdmann, E. A., Nitsche, S., Gorbushina, A. A. & Schumacher, J. Genetic Engineering of the Rock Inhabitant Knufia petricola Provides Insight Into the Biology of Extremotolerant Black Fungi. Front. Fungal. Biol. 3, https://doi.org/10.3389/ffunb.2022.862429 (2022).10.3389/ffunb.2022.862429 ↗
78. Bushnell, L. D. & Haas, H. F. The Utilization of Certain Hydrocarbons by Microorganisms. J. Bacteriol 41, 653–673 (1941).10.1128/jb.41.5.653-673.1941 ↗
79. DIN. EN 590:2022-05, Automotive fuels - Diesel - Requirements and test methods.
80. DIN. EN 10130:2007-02, Cold rolled low carbon steel flat products for cold forming - Technical delivery conditions
81. DIN. EN ISO/IEC 17025:2018-03, General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories.
82. Spurr, A. R. A low-viscosity epoxy resin embedding medium for electron microscopy. J. Ultrastruct. Res 26, 31–43 (1969).10.1016/S0022-5320(69)90033-1 ↗
83. R: A language and environment for statistical computing v. R version 4.5.1 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2025).