Alteration of medieval stained glass windows in atmospheric medium: review and simplified alteration model
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Stained glass windows are a precious heritage to pass on to future generations. However, medieval stained glass windows are particularly altered due to their chemical composition and the effects of climatic (mainly water and temperature), environmental (pollution) and biological factors. In this review, we present the alteration patterns observed on ancient Si-K-Ca stained glass windows. To better understand their formation mechanisms and determine the alteration rates, different exposure campaigns to the current atmosphere in a position sheltered from rain or not and laboratory experiments in aqueous medium or in gaseous phase have been conducted. Either model glass or ancient stained glass windows were studied. Isotopic tracers (D,18O,29Si) have been used as they constitute a powerful tool to elucidate the involved processes and to measure their kinetics. Thanks to all of these data, an alteration scenario of medieval stained glass alteration is proposed. Besides, the extrapolation of kinetic data based on several hypotheses over seven centuries gives very consistent results compared to the ancient stained glass samples.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis · Building materials and conservation · Conservation Techniques and Studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Calas, G., Galoisy, L. & Cormier, L. The color of glass. In Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture (eds Richet, P., Conradt, R., Takada, A. & Dyon, J.) 677–691 (John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2021).10.1002/9781118801017.ch6.2 ↗
2. Capobianco, N. et al. The representation of skin colour in medieval stained glasses: the role of manganese. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 38, 103082 (2021).
3. Capobianco, N. et al. The Grande Rose of the Reims Cathedral: an eight-century perspective on the colour management of medieval stained glass. Sci. Rep. 9, 3287 (2019).10.1038/s41598-019-39740-y ↗
4. Galoisy, L. Structure-property relationships in industrial and natural glasses. Elements 2, 293–297 (2006).10.2113/gselements.2.5.293 ↗
5. Hunault, M. O. J. Y. et al. Thirteenth-century stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris: an insight into medieval glazing work practices. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 35, 102753 (2021).
6. Rossano, S. et al. Glass colourations caused by Mn-Fe redox pair: application to ancient glass technology. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 594, 121710 (2022).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2022.121710 ↗
7. Lautier, C. Les débuts du jaune d’argent dans l’art du vitrail ou le jaune d’argent à la manière d’Antoine de Pise. Bull. Monum. 158, 89–107 (2000).10.3406/bulmo.2000.2371 ↗
8. Pallot-Frossard, I. Manuel de conservation, restauration et création de vitraux (Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, 2007).
9. Camuffo, D., Pagan, E., Bernardi, A. & Becherini, F. The impact of heating, lighting and people in re-using historical buildings: a case study. J. Cult. Herit. 5, 409–416 (2004).10.1016/j.culher.2004.01.005 ↗
10. Maingi, E. M. et al. Historical stained-glass window laser preservation: the heat accumulation challenge. Bol. Soc. Esp. Ceram. Vidr. 61, S69–S82 (2022).10.1016/j.bsecv.2021.12.003 ↗
11. Bernardi, A. et al. Conservation of stained glass windows with protective glazing: main results from the European VIDRIO research programme. J. Cult. Herit. 14, 527–536 (2013).10.1016/j.culher.2012.11.009 ↗
12. Bernardi, A., Becherini, F., Bassato, G. & Bellio, M. Condensation on ancient stained glass windows and efficiency of protective glazing systems: two French case studies, Sainte-Chapelle (Paris) and Saint-Urbain Basilica (Troyes). J. Cult. Herit. 7, 71–78 (2006).10.1016/j.culher.2005.10.007 ↗
13. Godoi, R. H. M., Kontozova, V. & Van Grieken, R. The shielding effect of the protective glazing of historical stained glass windows from an atmospheric chemistry perspective: case study Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Atmos. Environ. 40, 1255–1265 (2006).10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.10.033 ↗
14. Gin, S. et al. An international initiative on long-term behavior of high-level nuclear waste glass. Mater. Today 16, 243–248 (2013).10.1016/j.mattod.2013.06.008 ↗
15. Vienna, J. D., Ryan, J. V., Gin, S. & Inagaki, Y. Current understanding and remaining challenges in modeling long-term degradation of borosilicate nuclear waste glasses. Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci. 4, 283–294 (2013).10.1111/ijag.12050 ↗
16. Prause, S. et al. Alteration of basaltic glass within the Surtsey hydrothermal system, Iceland—implication to oceanic crust seawater interaction. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 429, 107581 (2022).10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107581 ↗
17. Kurkjian, C. R. & Prindle, W. R. Perspectives on the history of glass composition. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 81, 795–813 (1998).10.1111/j.1151-2916.1998.tb02415.x ↗
18. Schalm, O., Janssens, K., Wouters, H. & Caluwé, D. Composition of 12–18th century window glass in Belgium: non-figurative windows in secular buildings and stained-glass windows in religious buildings. Spectrochim. Acta B 62, 663–668 (2007).10.1016/j.sab.2007.03.006 ↗
19. Barrera, J. & Velde, B. D. A study of french medieval glass composition. Archeol. Mediev. 19, 81–130 (1989).
20. Wedepohl, K. H. & Simon, K. The chemical composition of medieval wood ash glass from Central Europe. Geochemistry 70, 89–97 (2010).10.1016/j.chemer.2009.12.006 ↗
21. Gliozzo, E. The composition of colourless glass: a review. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 9, 455–483 (2017).10.1007/s12520-016-0388-y ↗
22. Majérus, O. et al. Glass alteration in atmospheric conditions: crossing perspectives from cultural heritage, glass industry, and nuclear waste management. NPJ Mater. Degrad. 4, 1–16 (2020).10.1038/s41529-020-00130-9 ↗
23. Adlington, L. W. et al. Regional patterns in medieval European glass composition as a provenancing tool. J. Archaeol. Sci. 110, 104991 (2019).10.1016/j.jas.2019.104991 ↗
24. Sterpenich, J. & Libourel, G. Using stained glass windows to understand the durability of toxic waste matrices. Chem. Geol. 174, 181–193 (2001).10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00315-6 ↗
25. Ferrand, J. et al. Browning phenomenon of medieval stained glass windows. Anal. Chem. 87, 3662–3669 (2015).10.1021/ac504193z ↗
26. Casellato, U. et al. Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 1: raw materials, sands and non-vitreous finds. J. Cult. Herit. 4, 337–353 (2003).10.1016/j.culher.2003.06.003 ↗
27. Bianchin, S. et al. Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 2: vitreous finds and sands. J. Cult. Herit. 6, 39–54 (2005).10.1016/j.culher.2004.07.001 ↗
28. Hunault, M. O. J. Y. et al. The rose of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris: sophisticated stained glasses for late medieval painters. C. R. Geosci. 354, 101–120 (2022).10.5802/crgeos.110 ↗
29. Melcher, M. & Schreiner, M. Leaching studies on naturally weathered potash-lime–silica glasses. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 352, 368–379 (2006).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2006.01.017 ↗
30. Melcher, M. & Schreiner, M. Evaluation procedure for leaching studies on naturally weathered potash-lime-silica glasses with medieval composition by scanning electron microscopy. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 351, 1210–1225 (2005).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2005.02.020 ↗
31. Woisetschläger, G., Dutz, M., Paul, S. & Schreiner, M. Weathering phenomena on naturally weathered potash-lime-silica-glass with medieval composition studied by secondary electron microscopy and energy dispersive microanalysis. Microchim. Acta 135, 121–130 (2000).10.1007/s006040070001 ↗
32. Silvestri, A., Molin, G. & Pomero, V. The stained glass window of the southern transept of St. Anthony’s Basilica (Padova, Italy): study of glasses and grisaille paint layers. Spectrochim. Acta B 66, 81–87 (2011).10.1016/j.sab.2010.11.015 ↗
33. Vilarigues, M., Fernandes, P., Alves, L. C. & da Silva, R. C. Stained glasses under the nuclear microprobe: a window into history. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B 267, 2260–2264 (2009).10.1016/j.nimb.2009.03.049 ↗
34. Drewello, R. & Weissmann, R. Microbially influenced corrosion of glass. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 47, 337–346 (1997).10.1007/s002530050937 ↗
35. Müller, E., Drewello, U., Drewello, R., Weißmann, R. & Wuertz, S. In situ analysis of biofilms on historic window glass using confocal laser scanning microscopy. J. Cult. Herit. 2, 31–42 (2001).10.1016/S1296-2074(01)01106-2 ↗
36. Sessegolo, L., Verney-Carron, A., Ausset, P., Saheb, M. & Chabas, A. Effect of surface roughness on medieval-type glass alteration in aqueous medium. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 505, 260–271 (2019).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2018.10.051 ↗
37. Gentaz, L. et al. Role of secondary phases in the scaling of stained glass windows exposed to rain. Corros. Sci. 109, 206–216 (2016).10.1016/j.corsci.2016.04.005 ↗
38. Carmona, N. et al. Biodeterioration of historic stained glasses from the Cartuja de Miraflores (Spain). Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 58, 155–161 (2006a).10.1016/j.ibiod.2006.06.014 ↗
39. Lombardo, T. et al. Long term assessment of atmospheric decay of stained glass windows. Corros. Eng. Sci. Technol. 45, 420–424 (2010).10.1179/147842210X12710800383800 ↗
40. Cox, G. A. & Ford, R. A. The corrosion of glass on the sea bed. J. Mater. Sci. 24, 3146–3153 (1989).10.1007/BF01139033 ↗
41. Dal Bianco, B., Bertoncello, R., Milanese, L. & Barison, S. Glass corrosion across the alps: a surface study of chemical corrosion of glasses found in marine and ground environments. Archaeometry 47, 351–360 (2005).10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00206.x ↗
42. Longinelli, A., Silvestri, A., Molin, G. & Salviulo, G. 1.8 ka old glass from the Roman ship Julia Felix: glass–water oxygen isotope exchange. Chem. Geol. 211, 335–342 (2004).10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.07.003 ↗
43. Brill, R. H. & Hood, H. P. A new method for dating ancient glass. Nature 189, 12–14 (1961).10.1038/189012a0 ↗
44. Cox, G. A. & Ford, B. A. The long-term corrosion of glass by ground-water. J. Mater. Sci. 28, 5637–5647 (1993).10.1007/BF00367840 ↗
45. Doménech-Carbó, M.-T., Doménech-Carbó, A., Osete-Cortina, L. & Saurí-Peris, M.-C. A study on corrosion processes of archaeological glass from the Valencian Region (Spain) and its consolidation treatment. Microchim. Acta 154, 123–142 (2006).10.1007/s00604-005-0472-y ↗
46. Genga, A. et al. Characterization of surface layers formed under natural environmental conditions on medieval glass from Siponto (Southern Italy). Mater. Chem. Phys. 111, 480–485 (2008).10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.04.057 ↗
47. Gulmini, M., Pace, M., Ivaldi, G., Ponzi, M. N. & Mirti, P. Morphological and chemical characterization of weathering products on buried Sasanian glass from central Iraq. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 355, 1613–1621 (2009).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.05.056 ↗
48. Hasdemir, I., Striepe, S., Deubener, J. & Schmidt, B. C. Micromechanical properties of banded alterations of archaeological glass fragments. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 376, 126–132 (2013).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2013.05.012 ↗
49. Macquet, C. & Thomassin, J. H. Archaeological glasses as modelling of the behavior of buried nuclear waste glass. Appl. Clay Sci. 7, 17–31 (1992).10.1016/0169-1317(92)90025-I ↗
50. Procházka, R. et al. A comparison of natural and experimental long-term corrosion of uranium-colored glass. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 355, 2134–2142 (2009).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.06.032 ↗
51. Römich, H. Studies of ancient glass and their application to nuclear-waste management. MRS Bull. 28, 500–504 (2003).10.1557/mrs2003.146 ↗
52. Salviulo, G., Silvestri, A., Molin, G. & Bertoncello, R. An archaeometric study of the bulk and surface weathering characteristics of early Medieval (5th–7th century) glass from the Po valley, northern Italy. J. Archaeol. Sci. 31, 295–306 (2004).10.1016/j.jas.2003.08.010 ↗
53. Schalm, O. & Anaf, W. Laminated altered layers in historical glass: density variations of silica nanoparticle random packings as explanation for the observed lamellae. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 442, 1–16 (2016).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2016.03.019 ↗
54. Silvestri, A., Molin, G. & Salviulo, G. Archaeological glass alteration products in marine and land-based environments: morphological, chemical and microtextural characterization. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 351, 1338–1349 (2005).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2005.03.013 ↗
55. Sterpenich, J. & Libourel, G. Water diffusion in silicate glasses under natural weathering conditions: evidence from buried medieval stained glasses. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 352, 5446–5451 (2006).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2006.08.041 ↗
56. Stroncik, N. A. & Schmincke, H.-U. Palagonite—a review. Int. J. Earth Sci. 91, 680–697 (2002).10.1007/s00531-001-0238-7 ↗
57. Dohmen, L. et al. Pattern formation in silicate glass corrosion zones. Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci. 4, 357–370 (2013).10.1111/ijag.12046 ↗
58. Kontozova-Deutsch, V., Deutsch, F., Godoi, R., Van Grieken, R. & De Wael, K. Urban air pollutants and their micro effects on medieval stained glass windows. Microchem. J. 99, 508–513 (2011).10.1016/j.microc.2011.07.003 ↗
59. Bacci, M., Corallini, A., Orlando, A., Picollo, M. & Radicati, B. The ancient stained windows by Nicolò di Pietro Gerini in Florence. A novel diagnostic tool for non-invasive in situ diagnosis. J. Cult. Herit. 8, 235–241 (2007).10.1016/j.culher.2007.02.001 ↗
60. Vilarigues, M. et al. Corrosion of 15th and early 16th century stained glass from the monastery of Batalha studied with external ion beam. Mater. Charact. 62, 211–217 (2011).10.1016/j.matchar.2010.12.001 ↗
61. Müller, W. Altérations des vitraux du Moyen-Âge. In Programme Franco-Allemand de recherche pour la conservation des monuments historiques: colloque final (eds Pallot-Frossard, I. & Philippon, J.) 312–329 (Exé Productions, 1999).
62. Ferrand, J. Le phénomène de brunissement des vitraux médiévaux: critères d’identification et nature de la phase d’altération (Université Paris-Est, 2013).
63. Barbey, P., Sterpenich, J. & Libourel, G. Altération des vitraux: produits d’altération, états d’oxydation du manganèse, effets des traitements de surface. Stained glass weathering: corrosion products, manganese oxydation states, effects of retreatments of the surface. In Conservation commune d’un patrimoine commun (ed. Filtz, J. F.) 61–72 (Programme franco-allemand de recherche pour la conservation des monuments historiques, 1997).
64. Schalm, O. et al. Manganese staining of archaeological glass: the characterization of Mn-rich inclusions in leached layers and a hypothesis of its formation. Archaeometry 53, 103–122 (2011).10.1111/j.1475-4754.2010.00534.x ↗
65. Sterpenich, J. Altération des vitraux médiévaux: contribution à l’étude du comportement à long terme des verres de confinement (Université de Nancy 1, 1998).
66. Krawczyk-Bärsch, E., Däbritz, S. & Hauffe, W. The darkening of medieval glass by oxidation of manganese. In Conservation commune d’un patrimoine commun (ed. Filtz, J.F.) 73–80 (Programme franco-allemand de recherche pour la conservation des monuments historiques, 1997).
67. Gin, S., Delaye, J.-M., Angeli, F. & Schuller, S. Aqueous alteration of silicate glass: state of knowledge and perspectives. NPJ Mater. Degrad. 5, 1–20 (2021).10.1038/s41529-021-00190-5 ↗
68. Doremus, R. Interdiffusion of hydrogen and alkali ions in a glass surface. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 19, 137–144 (1975).10.1016/0022-3093(75)90079-4 ↗
69. Ferrand, K., Abdelouas, A. & Grambow, B. Water diffusion in the simulated French nuclear waste glass SON 68 contacting silica rich solutions: experimental and modeling. J. Nucl. Mater. 355, 54–67 (2006).10.1016/j.jnucmat.2006.04.005 ↗
70. Rébiscoul, D. et al. Water penetration mechanisms in nuclear glasses by X-ray and neutron reflectometry. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 353, 2221–2230 (2007).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2007.03.002 ↗
71. Smets, B. & Lommen, T. The role of molecular water in the leaching of glass. Phys. Chem. Glasses 24, 35–36 (1983).
72. Bunker, B. C. Molecular mechanisms for corrosion of silica and silicate glasses. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 179, 300–308 (1994).10.1016/0022-3093(94)90708-0 ↗
73. Bouyer, F., Geneste, G., Ispas, S., Kob, W. & Ganster, P. Water solubility in calcium aluminosilicate glasses investigated by first principles techniques. J. Solid State Chem. 183, 2786–2796 (2010).10.1016/j.jssc.2010.08.031 ↗
74. Geneste, G., Bouyer, F. & Gin, S. Hydrogen–sodium interdiffusion in borosilicate glasses investigated from first principles. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 352, 3147–3152 (2006).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2006.04.023 ↗
75. White, A. F. & Claassen, H. C. Kinetic model for the short-term dissolution of a rhyolitic glass. Chem. Geol. 28, 91–109 (1980).10.1016/0009-2541(80)90038-8 ↗
76. Houser, C. A., Herman, J. S., Tsong, I. S. T., White, W. B. & Lanford, W. A. Sodium-hydrogen interdiffusion in sodium silicate glasses. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 41, 89–98 (1980).10.1016/0022-3093(80)90194-5 ↗
77. Lanford, W. A. et al. Hydration of soda-lime glass. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 33, 249–266 (1979).10.1016/0022-3093(79)90053-X ↗
78. Tsong, I. S. T. et al. Evidence for interdiffusion of hydronium and alkali ions in leached glasses. Appl. Phys. Lett. 39, 669–670 (1981).10.1063/1.92814 ↗
79. Dran, J.-C., Petit, J.-C., Trotignon, L., Paccagnella, A. & Mea, G. D. Hydration mechanisms of silicate glasses: discussion of the respective role of ion exchange and water permeation. In MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive 127 (1988).10.1557/PROC-127-25 ↗
80. Hellmann, R. et al. Nanometre-scale evidence for interfacial dissolution-reprecipitation control of silicate glass corrosion. Nat. Mater. 14, 307–311 (2015).10.1038/nmat4172 ↗
81. Lenting, C. et al. Towards a unifying mechanistic model for silicate glass corrosion. NPJ Mater. Degrad. 2, 1–10 (2018).10.1038/s41529-018-0048-z ↗
82. Ma, T. et al. A mechanistic model for long-term nuclear waste glass dissolution integrating chemical affinity and interfacial diffusion barrier. J. Nucl. Mater. 486, 70–85 (2017).10.1016/j.jnucmat.2017.01.001 ↗
83. Valle, N. et al. Elemental and isotopic (29Si and 18O) tracing of glass alteration mechanisms. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 74, 3412–3431 (2010).10.1016/j.gca.2010.03.028 ↗
84. Leissner, J. The effect of air pollution on glass. In The Effects of Air Pollution on the Built Environment (ed. Brimblecombe, P.) 249–265 (World Scientific, 2003).10.1142/9781848161283_0008 ↗
85. Sessegolo, L. Utilisation de traceurs isotopiques pour l’étude des mécanismes et des cinétiques d’altération des verres de vitraux en milieu atmosphérique (Université Paris-Est, 2018).
86. Sessegolo, L. et al. Long-term weathering rate of stained-glass windows using H and O isotopes. NPJ Mater. Degrad. 2, 1–9 (2018).10.1038/s41529-018-0038-1 ↗
87. Verney-Carron, A., Saheb, M., Loisel, C., Duhamel, R. & Remusat, L. Use of hydrogen isotopes to understand stained glass weathering. Procedia Earth Planet. Sci. 13, 64–67 (2015).10.1016/j.proeps.2015.07.015 ↗
88. Verney-Carron, A. et al. Understanding the mechanisms of Si–K–Ca glass alteration using silicon isotopes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 203, 404–421 (2017).10.1016/j.gca.2017.01.030 ↗
89. Asay, D. B. & Kim, S. H. Evolution of the adsorbed water layer structure on silicon oxide at room temperature. J. Phys. Chem. B 109, 16760–16763 (2005).10.1021/jp053042o ↗
90. Ebert, W. L., Hoburg, R. F. & Bates, J. K. The sorption of water on obsidian and a nuclear waste glass. Phys. chem. Glasses 32, 133–137 (1991).
91. Sessegolo, L. et al. Alteration of potash-lime silicate glass in atmospheric medium: study of mechanisms and kinetics using 18O and D isotopes. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 570, 121020 (2021).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2021.121020 ↗
92. Anovitz, L. M., Cole, D. R. & Fayek, M. Mechanisms of rhyolitic glass hydration below the glass transition. Am. Mineral. 93, 1166–1178 (2008).10.2138/am.2008.2516 ↗
93. Kudriavtsev, Y. U., Asomoza-Palacio, R. & Manzanilla-Naim, L. Interaction of water vapor with silicate glass surfaces: mass-spectrometric investigations. Tech. Phys. Lett. 43, 447–449 (2017).10.1134/S1063785017050054 ↗
94. Alloteau, F. et al. New insight into atmospheric alteration of alkali-lime silicate glasses. Corros. Sci. 122, 12–25 (2017).10.1016/j.corsci.2017.03.025 ↗
95. Kudriavtsev, Y., Avendano, M., Ramirez, G., Asomoza-Palacio, R. & Manzanilla-Naim, L. Water vapor interaction with borosilicate glass. Solid State Ion. 321, 122–125 (2018).10.1016/j.ssi.2018.04.015 ↗
96. Cummings, K., Lanford, W. A. & Feldmann, M. Weathering of glass in moist and polluted air. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B 136–138, 858–862 (1998).10.1016/S0168-583X(97)00758-1 ↗
97. Fearn, S., McPhail, D. S., Morris, R. J. H. & Dowsett, M. G. Sodium and hydrogen analysis of room temperature glass corrosion using low energy Cs SIMS. Appl. Surf. Sci. 252, 7070–7073 (2006).10.1016/j.apsusc.2006.02.101 ↗
98. Gentaz, L., Lombardo, T., Chabas, A., Loisel, C. & Verney-Carron, A. Impact of neocrystallisations on the SiO2–K2O–CaO glass degradation due to atmospheric dry depositions. Atmos. Environ. 55, 459–466 (2012).10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.03.008 ↗
99. Wexler, A. S. & Seinfeld, J. H. Second-generation inorganic aerosol model. Atmos. Environ. 25, 2731–2748 (1991).10.1016/0960-1686(91)90203-J ↗
100. Palomar, T., Chabas, A., Bastidas, D. M., de la Fuente, D. & Verney-Carron, A. Effect of marine aerosols on the alteration of silicate glasses. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 471, 328–337 (2017).10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2017.06.013 ↗