journal article·2026-04-01Open access

Atomistic modeling of molecular interactions with copper oxides for corrosion inhibition

Mazhar Iqbal, Ernane de Freitas Martins, Nevena Todorova, Zhongheng Fu, Ivan Cole, Pablo Ordejón

npj Materials Degradation· Volume 10· Issue 1

Abstract

Abstract A detailed understanding of the adsorption mechanism of organic corrosion inhibitors is essential, as these molecules must form film barriers on the metal surface to prevent corrosion-associated electrochemical reactions. In this regard, molecular modeling approaches can be valuable; however, the works reported in the literature to date use very simple models. This mini-review discusses the different kinds of copper surface models and theoretical methods used to simulate adsorbate-surface interactions. We focus on how authors have simulated an atmospheric corrosive medium − ambient containing moisture and pollutants, leading to a thin aqueous layer on the surface containing electrolyte ions such as chloride and others − to evaluate the realistic inhibitor’s adsorption mechanism. Finally, we discuss what kind of surface models and modeling approaches should be used to address two main aspects: a realistic description of adsorbate-surface interactions and the inhibitor’s adsorption mechanism under experimental corrosive conditions.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Corrosion Behavior and Inhibition · Concrete Corrosion and Durability · Copper-based nanomaterials and applications

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. Miller, B. P., Furlong, O. J. & Tysoe, W. T. The desorption and reaction of 1-alkenes and 1-alkynes on Cu(111) and copper foils. Surf. Sci. 616, 143–148 (2013).10.1016/j.susc.2013.04.007 ↗
2. Abdulagatov, A. et al. Al2O3 and TiO2 atomic layer deposition on copper for water corrosion resistance. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 3, 4593–4601 (2011).10.1021/am2009579 ↗
3. Ma, Y., Evans, D., Nguyen, T., Ono, Y. & Hsu, S. Fabrication and characterization of sub-quarter-micron MOSFETs with a copper gate electrode. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 20, 254–255 (1999).10.1109/55.761031 ↗
4. Kelly, J., Parks, C., Demarest, J., Li, J. & Penny, C. Microstructure evolution of copper in nanoscale interconnect features. Copper Electrodeposit. Nanofabric. Electron. Devices 115–130 (2014).10.1007/978-1-4614-9176-7_6 ↗
5. Hatano, T., Kurosawa, Y. & Miyake, J. Effect of material processing on fatigue of FPC rolled copper foil. J. Electron. Mater. 29, 611–616 (2000).10.1007/s11664-000-0054-z ↗
6. Lee, C. Y., Moon, W. C. & Jung, S. B. Surface finishes of rolled copper foil for flexible printed circuit board. Mater. Sci. Eng.: A 483, 723–726 (2008).10.1016/j.msea.2006.12.176 ↗
7. Liu, D. et al. Formation mechanism and prevention of Cu undercut defects in the photoresist stripping process of MoNb/Cu stacked electrodes. Materials 17, 5008 (2024).10.3390/ma17205008 ↗
8. Chiang, K. C. & Koslowski, M. Corrosion-induced fracture of Cu–Al microelectronics interconnects. Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 32, 045004 (2024).10.1088/1361-651X/ad33de ↗
9. Xiong, S., Liang, D., Ba, Z., Zhang, Z. & Luo, S. Adsorption behavior of thiadiazole derivatives as anticorrosion additives on copper oxide surface: computational and experimental studies. Appl. Surf. Sci. 492, 399–406 (2019).10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.06.253 ↗
10. Xiong, S., Li, Y., Sun, J. & Qi, Y. Integrated computation and experimental investigation on the adsorption mechanisms of anti-wear and anti-corrosion additives on copper. J. Phys. Chem. C. 121, 21995–22003 (2017).10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b04460 ↗
11. Adeloju, S. & Duan, Y. Corrosion resistance of Cu2O and CuO on copper surfaces in aqueous media. Br. Corros. J. 29, 309–314 (1994).10.1179/000705994798267485 ↗
12. Banerjee, P., Sengupta, S., Murmu, M. & Murmu, N. C. Copper oxide as a corrosion inhibitor. Inorg. Anticorros. Mater. 211–229 (2022).10.1016/B978-0-323-90410-0.00012-X ↗
13. Antonijevic, M. & Petrovic, M. Copper corrosion inhibitors. A review. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 3, 1–28 (2008).10.1016/S1452-3981(23)15441-1 ↗
14. El Ibrahimi, B., Jmiai, A., Bazzi, L. & El Issami, S. Amino acids and their derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for metals and alloys. Arab. J. Chem. 13, 740–771 (2020).10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.07.013 ↗
15. Tan, B. et al. Pyracantha fortuneana alcohol extracts as biodegradable corrosion inhibitors for copper in H2SO4 media. J. Mol. Liq. 397, 124117 (2024).10.1016/j.molliq.2024.124117 ↗
16. Tan, B. et al. A novel corrosion inhibitor for copper in sulfuric acid media: complexation of iodide ions with benincasa hispida leaf extract. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 705, 135710 (2025).10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.135710 ↗
17. Fateh, A., Aliofkhazraei, M. & Rezvanian, A. Review of corrosive environments for copper and its corrosion inhibitors. Arab. J. Chem. 13, 481–544 (2020).10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.021 ↗
18. Costa, M. & Klein, C. B. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of chromium compounds in humans. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 36, 155–163 (2006).10.1080/10408440500534032 ↗
19. Gharbi, O., Thomas, S., Smith, C. & Birbilis, N. Chromate replacement: what does the future hold?. npj Mater. Degrad. 2, 12 (2018).10.1038/s41529-018-0034-5 ↗
20. Sastri, V. S. Corrosion inhibition: Theory and practice. Green Corros. Inhibit.: Theory Pract. 139–166 (2012).10.1002/9781118015438.ch4 ↗
21. Castillo-Robles, J. M., de Freitas Martins, E., Ordejón, P. & Cole, I. Molecular modeling applied to corrosion inhibition: a critical review. npj Mater. Degrad. 8, 72 (2024).10.1038/s41529-024-00478-2 ↗
22. Kovačević, N., Milošev, I. & Kokalj, A. The roles of mercapto, benzene, and methyl groups in the corrosion inhibition of imidazoles on copper: II. inhibitor-copper bonding. Corros. Sci. 98, 457–470 (2015).10.1016/j.corsci.2015.05.041 ↗
23. Sharma, S. B., Maurice, V., Klein, L. H. & Marcus, P. Local inhibition by 2-mercaptobenzothiazole of early stage intergranular corrosion of copper. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 161504 (2020).10.1149/1945-7111/abcc36 ↗
24. Finšgar, M. 2-mercaptobenzimidazole as a copper corrosion inhibitor: Part I. long-term immersion, 3D-profilometry, and electrochemistry. Corros. Sci. 72, 82–89 (2013).10.1016/j.corsci.2013.03.011 ↗
25. Milošev, I., Kovačević, N., Kovač, J. & Kokalj, A. The roles of mercapto, benzene and methyl groups in the corrosion inhibition of imidazoles on copper: I. experimental characterization. Corros. Sci. 98, 107–118 (2015).10.1016/j.corsci.2015.05.006 ↗
26. Niamien, P. et al. Correlation between the molecular structure and the inhibiting effect of some benzimidazole derivatives. Mater. Chem. Phys. 136, 59–65 (2012).10.1016/j.matchemphys.2012.06.025 ↗
27. Shahrabi, T., Tavakholi, H. & Hosseini, M. Corrosion inhibition of copper in sulphuric acid by some nitrogen heterocyclic compounds. Anti-Corros. Methods Mater. 54, 308–313 (2007).10.1108/00035590710822161 ↗
28. Trachli, B., Keddam, M., Takenouti, H. & Srhiri, A. Protective effect of electropolymerized 2-mercaptobenzimidazole upon copper corrosion. Prog. Org. Coat. 44, 17–23 (2002).10.1016/S0300-9440(01)00205-3 ↗
29. Chadwick, D. & Hashemi, T. Electron spectroscopy of corrosion inhibitors: surface films formed by 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole on copper. Surf. Sci. 89, 649–659 (1979).10.1016/0039-6028(79)90646-0 ↗
30. Xue, G., Huang, X.-Y., Dong, J. & Zhang, J. The formation of an effective anti-corrosion film on copper surfaces from 2-mercaptobenzimidazole solution. J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem. 310, 139–148 (1991).10.1016/0022-0728(91)85257-P ↗
31. Gründer, Y. et al. Cu(111) in chloride containing acidic electrolytes: coadsorption of an oxygenated species. J. Electroanal. Chem. 712, 74–81 (2014).10.1016/j.jelechem.2013.11.004 ↗
32. Abrahami, S. T. et al. In situ EC-STM study and DFT modeling of the adsorption of glycerol on Cu(111) in NaOH solution. J. Phys. Chem. C. 123, 22228–22238 (2019).10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b04856 ↗
33. Maurice, V., Strehblow, H. H. & Marcus, P. In situ stm study of the initial stages of oxidation of Cu(111) in aqueous solution. Surf. Sci. 458, 185–194 (2000).10.1016/S0039-6028(00)00442-8 ↗
34. Finšgar, M., Peljhan, S., Kokalj, A., Kovač, J. & Milošev, I. Determination of the Cu2O thickness on BTAH-inhibited copper by reconstruction of auger electron spectra. J. Electrochem. Soc. 157, C295 (2010).10.1149/1.3463718 ↗
35. Sander, U., Strehblow, H. H. & Dohrmann, J. K. In situ photoacoustic spectroscopy of thin oxide layers on metal electrodes. Copper in alkaline solution. J. Phys. Chem. 85, 447–450 (1981).10.1021/j150604a025 ↗
36. FitzGerald, K., Nairn, J., Skennerton, G. & Atrens, A. Atmospheric corrosion of copper and the colour, structure and composition of natural patinas on copper. Corros. Sci. 48, 2480–2509 (2006).10.1016/j.corsci.2005.09.011 ↗
37. Strandberg, H. & Johansson, L. G. Some aspects of the atmospheric corrosion of copper in the presence of sodium chloride. J. Electrochem. Soc. 145, 1093 (1998).10.1149/1.1838422 ↗
38. Strandberg, H. & Johansson, L. G. Role of O3 in the atmospheric corrosion of copper in the presence of SO2. J. Electrochem. Soc. 144, 2334 (1997).10.1149/1.1837814 ↗
39. Kokalj, A. & Peljhan, S. Density functional theory study of adsorption of benzotriazole on Cu2O surfaces. J. Phys. Chem. C. 119, 11625–11635 (2015).10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b01677 ↗
40. Rapaport, D. C. The Art of Molecular Dynamics Simulation, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2004).10.1017/CBO9780511816581 ↗
41. Galli, G. & Parrinello, M. Ab-Initio Molecular Dynamics: Principles and Practical Implementation, 283–304 Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, (1991).10.1007/978-94-011-3546-7_13 ↗
42. Bakowies, D. & Thiel, W. Hybrid models for combined quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical approaches. J. Phys. Chem. 100, 10580–10594 (1996).10.1021/jp9536514 ↗
43. Groenhof, G. Introduction to QM/MM simulations. Biomol. Simul.: Methods Protocols 43–66 (2012).10.1007/978-1-62703-017-5_3 ↗
44. Gece, G. The use of quantum chemical methods in corrosion inhibitor studies. Corros. Sci. 50, 2981–2992 (2008).10.1016/j.corsci.2008.08.043 ↗
45. Sholl, D. S. & Steckel, J. A. Density Functional Theory: A Practical Introduction, 2nd edn Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey, (2023).
46. Blazquez, P. B. et al. Lennard-Jones parameter fitting for gold/water interaction based on structural analysis: A QM, MM, and QM/MM study. Nanomaterials 16, 160 (2026).10.3390/nano16030160 ↗
47. Kunze, J., Maurice, V., Klein, L. H., Strehblow, H. H. & Marcus, P. In situ scanning tunneling microscopy study of the anodic oxidation of Cu(111) in 0.1 M NaOH. J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 4263–4269 (2001).10.1021/jp004012i ↗
48. Chen, A. et al. Atomistic insights into chloride-induced depassivation mechanisms of protective Cu2O films in marine environments. Corros. Sci. 256, 113171 (2025).10.1016/j.corsci.2025.113171 ↗
49. Sun, S. et al. Density functional theory study of imidazole, benzimidazole and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole adsorption onto clean Cu(111) surface. Corros. Sci. 63, 140–147 (2012).10.1016/j.corsci.2012.05.024 ↗
50. Yu, X., Zhang, X., Wang, S. & Feng, G. A computational study on water adsorption on Cu2O(111) surfaces: the effects of coverage and oxygen defect. Appl. Surf. Sci. 343, 33–40 (2015).10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.03.065 ↗
51. Chiter, F., Costa, D., Maurice, V. & Marcus, P. DFT-based Cu(111)∣∣Cu2O(111) model for copper metal covered by ultrathin copper oxide: structure, electronic properties, and reactivity. J. Phys. Chem. C. 124, 17048–17057 (2020).10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c04453 ↗
52. Riplinger, C. & Carter, E. A. Cooperative effects in water binding to cuprous oxide surfaces. J. Phys. Chem. C. 119, 9311–9323 (2015).10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b00383 ↗
53. Fu, Z., Zhang, X., Guo, X., Legut, D. & Zhang, D. Understanding atomic interaction between cuprous oxide film and aggressive chloride solution. Corros. Sci. 227, 111718 (2024).10.1016/j.corsci.2023.111718 ↗
54. Gustinčič, D. & Kokalj, A. DFT study of azole corrosion inhibitors on Cu2O model of oxidized copper surfaces: I. molecule − surface and Cl − surface bonding. Metals 8, 310 (2018).10.3390/met8050310 ↗
55. Kokalj, A., Gustinčič, D., Poberžnik, M. & Lozinšek, M. New insights into adsorption bonding of imidazole: A viable C2–H bond cleavage on copper surfaces. Appl. Surf. Sci. 479, 463–468 (2019).10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.12.246 ↗
56. Gharachorlou, A. et al. Trimethylaluminum and oxygen atomic layer deposition on hydroxyl-free Cu(111). ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 16428–16439 (2015).10.1021/acsami.5b03598 ↗
57. Park, J. H., Lee, J. H. & Soon, A. Organics on oxidic metal surfaces: a first-principles DFT study of PMDA and ODA fragments on the pristine and mildly oxidized surfaces of Cu(111). Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 18, 21893–21902 (2016).10.1039/C6CP03249D ↗
58. Chiter, F., Costa, D., Maurice, V. & Marcus, P. Adsorption of 2-mercaptobenzimidazole corrosion inhibitor on copper: DFT study on model oxidized interfaces. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 161506 (2020).10.1149/1945-7111/abcd4f ↗
59. Chiter, F., Costa, D., Maurice, V. & Marcus, P. Corrosion inhibition of locally de-passivated surfaces by DFT study of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole on copper. npj Mater. Degrad. 5, 52 (2021).10.1038/s41529-021-00198-x ↗
60. Chiter, F., Costa, D., Maurice, V. & Marcus, P. DFT investigation of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole adsorption on model oxidized copper surfaces and relationship with corrosion inhibition. Appl. Surf. Sci. 537, 147802 (2021).10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.147802 ↗
61. Ferrer, M. M. et al. Quantitative evaluation of the surface stability and morphological changes of Cu2O particles. Heliyon 5, e02500 (2019).10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02500 ↗
62. Bendavid, L. I. & Carter, E. A. First-principles predictions of the structure, stability, and photocatalytic potential of Cu2O surfaces. J. Phys. Chem. B 117, 15750–15760 (2013).10.1021/jp406454c ↗
63. Kim, Y. J. et al. Effect of water vapor on oxidation processes of the Cu(111) surface and sublayer. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24, 810 (2023).10.3390/ijms24010810 ↗
64. Xiao, X. et al. Corrosion mechanism and corrosion behavior prediction of Cu-10Ni-X alloys in NaCl solution combining DFT calculation and experiments. Corros. Sci. 227, 111671 (2024).10.1016/j.corsci.2023.111671 ↗
65. Callahan, C. W., Elansari, A. M. & Fenton, D. L. Chapter 8 – psychrometrics. In Yahia, E. M. (ed.) Postharvest Technology of Perishable Horticultural Commodities, 271–310 Woodhead Publishing, (2019).10.1016/B978-0-12-813276-0.00008-0 ↗
66. Berghian Grosan, C., Varvara, S., Bende, A. & Bostan, R. A complex electrochemical, theoretical and surface analysis investigation of copper corrosion inhibition in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Case study: SEM images and deep learning for incipient corrosion detection. J. Mol. Liquids 437, 128544 (2025).10.1016/j.molliq.2025.128544 ↗
67. Khaled, K. Experimental and atomistic simulation studies of corrosion inhibition of copper by a new benzotriazole derivative in acid medium. Electrochim. Acta 54, 4345–4352 (2009).10.1016/j.electacta.2009.03.002 ↗
68. Oukhrib, R. et al. DFT, Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations for the prediction of corrosion inhibition efficiency of novel pyrazolylnucleosides on Cu(111) surface in acidic media. Sci. Rep. 11, 3771 (2021).10.1038/s41598-021-82927-5 ↗
69. Cheng, X., Guo, C., Lu, L., Pan, L. & Ou, B. Corrosion inhibition mechanism of copper by a novel benzotriazole-based multicomponent volatile corrosion inhibitors packaging film: Surface characterization and theoretical analysis. Chem. Eng. Sci. 321, 122713 (2025).10.1016/j.ces.2025.122713 ↗
70. Kasprzhitskii, A. & Lazorenko, G. Hydroxyl-containing aliphatic amino acids and their peptide derivatives as green corrosion inhibitors for copper in an alkaline medium. Bioresource Technol. Rep. 31, 102228 (2025).10.1016/j.biteb.2025.102228 ↗
71. Xie, C., Milošev, I., Kokalj, A., Bruna, P. & Crespo, D. Imidazole- and mercaptobenzimidazole-derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for Cu, Cu-Zn alloys, and Zn in chloride solution. Electrochim. Acta. 532, 146460 (2025).10.1016/j.electacta.2025.146460 ↗
72. Zuo, Z., Huang, W., Han, P. & Li, Z. Solvent effects for CO and H2 adsorption on Cu2O(111) surface: a density functional theory study. Appl. Surf. Sci. 256, 2357–2362 (2010).10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.10.067 ↗
73. Tomasi, J., Mennucci, B. & Cammi, R. Quantum mechanical continuum solvation models. Chem. Rev. 105, 2999–3094 (2005).10.1021/cr9904009 ↗
74. Andreussi, O., Dabo, I. & Marzari, N. Revised self-consistent continuum solvation in electronic-structure calculations. J. Chem. Phys. 136, 064102 (2012).10.1063/1.3676407 ↗
75. Du, X. et al. Revealing the molecular structures of α-Al2O3(0001)-water interface by machine learning based computational vibrational spectroscopy. J. Chem. Phys. 161, 124702 (2024).10.1063/5.0230101 ↗
76. Mathew, K., Sundararaman, R., Letchworth-Weaver, K., Arias, T. & Hennig, R. G. Implicit solvation model for density-functional study of nanocrystal surfaces and reaction pathways. J. Chem. Phys. 140, 084106 (2014).10.1063/1.4865107 ↗
77. Obot, I., Gasem, Z. & Umoren, S. Understanding the mechanism of 2-mercaptobenzimidazole adsorption on Fe(110), Cu(111) and Al(111) surfaces: DFT and molecular dynamics simulations approaches. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 9, 2367–2378 (2014).10.1016/S1452-3981(23)07933-6 ↗
78. Vernack, E., Costa, D., Tingaut, P. & Marcus, P. DFT studies of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole as corrosion inhibitors for copper. Corros. Sci. 174, 108840 (2020).10.1016/j.corsci.2020.108840 ↗
79. Zeng, H. et al. Investigation of the inhibition mechanism of organic corrosion inhibitors on the copper surface by DFT study and MD simulations. ChemistrySelect 8, e202204908 (2023).10.1002/slct.202204908 ↗
80. Kumar, D., Jain, N., Jain, V. & Rai, B. Amino acids as copper corrosion inhibitors: A density functional theory approach. Appl. Surf. Sci. 514, 145905 (2020).10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.145905 ↗
81. Kokalj, A. & Peljhan, S. Density functional theory study of ATA, BTAH, and BTAOH as copper corrosion inhibitors: adsorption onto Cu(111) from gas phase. Langmuir 26, 14582–14593 (2010).10.1021/la1019789 ↗
82. Bourzi, H. et al. Furfural analogs as sustainable corrosion inhibitors−predictive efficiency using DFT and Monte Carlo simulations on the Cu(111), Fe(110), Al(111) and Sn(111) surfaces in acid media. Sustainability 12, 3304 (2020).10.3390/su12083304 ↗
83. Wang, W. et al. Insights into the nature of the coupling interactions between uracil corrosion inhibitors and copper: A DFT and molecular dynamics study. Corros. Sci. 61, 101–110 (2012).10.1016/j.corsci.2012.04.025 ↗
84. Kumar, D., Jain, V. & Rai, B. Imidazole derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for copper: A DFT and reactive force field study. Corros. Sci. 171, 108724 (2020).10.1016/j.corsci.2020.108724 ↗
85. Zriouel, W., Mabrak, H., Oubahou, M., Naimi, Y. & Hammouti, B. Theoretical investigation of geranium essential oil compounds as green corrosion inhibitors for copper: Insights from DFT, monte carlo, and molecular dynamics simulations. ChemistrySelect 10, e02260 (2025).10.1002/slct.202502260 ↗
86. Izrailev, S. et al. Steered molecular dynamics. In Deuflhard, P. et al. (eds.) Computational Molecular Dynamics: Challenges, Methods, Ideas, 39–65 (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1999).10.1007/978-3-642-58360-5_2 ↗
87. de Freitas Martins, E., Scheicher, R. H., Rocha, A. R. & Feliciano, G. T. A multiscale approach for electronic transport simulation of carbon nanostructures in aqueous solvent. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 24, 24404–24412 (2022).10.1039/D2CP02474H ↗
88. Santamaria, R. Classical molecular dynamics. Mol. Dyn. 295–326, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37042-7_13 (2023).10.1007/978-3-031-37042-7_13 ↗
89. Galli, G. & Parrinello, M. Ab-initio molecular dynamics: principles and practical implementation. Computer Simulation in Materials Science: Interatomic Potentials, Simulation Techniques and Applications 283–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3546-7_13 (1991).10.1007/978-94-011-3546-7_13 ↗
90. Todorova, M., Wippermann, S. & Neugebauer, J. First principles approaches and concepts to simulate electrochemical interfaces. arXiv:2411.05925 (2025).10.1038/s41570-025-00792-6 ↗
91. Tzeliou, C. E., Mermigki, M. A. & Tzeli, D. Review on the QM/MM methodologies and their application to metalloproteins. Molecules 27, 2660 (2022).10.3390/molecules27092660 ↗
92. Senn, H. M. & Thiel, W. QM/MM methods for biomolecular systems. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 48, 1198–1229 (2009).10.1002/anie.200802019 ↗
93. Chirravuri, S. P. K., Sai Kiran P, S., Gummadi, R. K., Dasari, N. & Rao G, S. K. Computational simulation of drug delivery at the molecular level. Appl. Comput. Tools Drug Des. Dev. 1–53, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4154-3_1 (2025).10.1007/978-981-96-4154-3_1 ↗
94. Dos Santos, A. M., da Costa, C. H., Silva, P. H., Skaf, M. S. & Lameira, J. Exploring the reaction mechanism of polyethylene terephthalate biodegradation through QM/MM approach. J. Phys. Chem. B 128, 7486–7499 (2024).10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c02207 ↗
95. Liu, Z. et al. Computational discovery of potent nucleoprotein inhibitors for influenza a virus: Validation through QM/MM analysis and experimental binding assays. Molecules 30, 3960 (2025).10.3390/molecules30193960 ↗
96. Petersen, M. K., Kumar, R., White, H. S. & Voth, G. A. A computationally efficient treatment of polarizable electrochemical cells held at a constant potential. J. Phys. Chem. C. 116, 4903–4912 (2012).10.1021/jp210252g ↗
97. Taylor, C. D., Wasileski, S. A., Filhol, J. S. & Neurock, M. First principles reaction modeling of the electrochemical interface: Consideration and calculation of a tunable surface potential from atomic and electronic structure. Phys. Rev. B Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 73, 165402 (2006).10.1103/PhysRevB.73.165402 ↗
98. Filhol, J. S. & Neurock, M. Elucidation of the electrochemical activation of water over Pd by first principles. Angew. Chem.-Int. Ed. 45, 402–406 (2006).10.1002/anie.200502540 ↗
99. Pedroza, L. S., Brandimarte, P., Rocha, A. R. & Fernández-Serra, M. V. Bias-dependent local structure of water molecules at a metallic interface. Chem. Sci. 9, 62–69 (2018).10.1039/C7SC02208E ↗
100. Ordejon, P. & Febrer, P. Addressing electrified metal-electrolyte interfaces with non-equilibrium Green’s functions. APS March Meet. Abstr. 2021, X19–001 (2021).