journal article·2026-01-22Open access

Feasibility of cracking granite with molten sodium carbonate as a mining technique in ancient egypt

Xiang Yi

npj Heritage Science· Volume 14· Issue 1

Abstract

Most granite processing techniques rely on physical destruction, with few utilizing minor chemical alteration. By combining archeological observations with experimental replication, this study investigates whether ancient granite works could have been created using faster and more efficient methods. The research aims to fill gaps in our understanding of ancient engineering and provide insights for modern restoration.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Building materials and conservation · Water management and technologies · Rock Mechanics and Modeling

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (43)

Show source-provided references
1. Anikoh, G. A., Adesida, P. A. & Afolabi, O. C. Investigation of physical and mechanical properties of selected rock types in Kogi state using hardness tests. J. Min. World Express 4, 37–51 (2015).10.14355/mwe.2015.04.004 ↗
2. Stocks, D. A. Testing ancient Egyptian granite-working methods in Aswan, Upper Egypt. Antiquity 75, 89–94 (2001).10.1017/S0003598X00052777 ↗
3. Serotta, A. Reading tool marks on Egyptian stone sculpture. Revista del Museo Egizio. 7 (2023).10.29353/rime.2023.5098 ↗
4. Stocks, D. Experiments in Egyptian archaeology: stoneworking technology in ancient Egypt (Routledge, 2015).
5. El-Gohary, M. Analytical investigations of disintegrated granite surface from the unfinished Obelisk in Aswan. J. Archaeom. 35, 29–39 (2011).
6. Storemyr, P., Heldal, T. Fire on the rocks: heat as an agent in Ancient Egyptian hard stone quarrying. In Engineering Geology for Society and Territory 5, 291–295 (Cham Springer, 2014).10.1007/978-3-319-09048-1_56 ↗
7. Zakrzewski, S., Shortland, A., Rowland, J. Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt (Routledge, 2015).10.4324/9781315678696 ↗
8. Larsen, E. S. The temperatures of magmas. J. Am. Mineralogist 14, 81–94 (1929).
9. Haynes, W. M., Lide, D. R., Bruno, T. J. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: A Ready-Reference Book of Chemical and Physical Data. 97th edn (CRC Press, 2017).10.1201/9781315380476 ↗
10. Nesse, W. D. Introduction to Mineralogy. 3rd edn (Oxford University Press, 2016).
11. Liu, J. et al. Geochronology and geochemistry of Triassic intrusive rocks in the Kaiyuan area of the eastern segment of the northern margin of North China. Acta Petrologica Sin. 32, 2739–2756 (2016).
12. Huang, J. et al. Enhancing mechanical properties and microstructures of mass-manufactured sand concrete by incorporating granite powder. Materials 17, 2234 (2024).10.3390/ma17102234 ↗
13. Wilkinson, T. The rise and fall of ancient Egypt (Random House, 2010).
14. Zhang, X. et al. Status and prospect of potassium extracting from potassium Feldspar. Conserv. Utilization Miner. Resour. 40, 7 (2020).
15. Grossmann, R. A. Ancient glass: a guide to the yale collection (Yale University Press, 2001).
16. Shortland, A., Schachner, L., Freestone, I. & Tite, M. Natron as a flux in the early vitreous materials industry: sources, beginnings and reasons for decline. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33, 521–530 (2006).10.1016/j.jas.2005.09.011 ↗
17. Henderson, J. Ancient glass: an interdisciplinary exploration (Cambridge University Press, 2013).10.1017/CBO9781139021883 ↗
18. Kovalev, I., Rodler, A. S., Brøns, C. & Rehren, T. Making and working egyptian blue – a review of the archaeological evidence. J. Archaeol. Sci. 153, 105772 (2023).10.1016/j.jas.2023.105772 ↗
19. Asmus, B. A natural draught furnace for bronze casting. in Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond (eds Mei, J. & Rehren, T.) 155–162 (Archetype, 2009).
20. Xu, J., Wei, H., Chu, H., Zhang, G. & Chen, D. Supercritical fluids as recorded in quartz megacrysts of the Late Jurassic porphyritic granitic dyke in the giant Dongping gold deposit, Northern China. J. Asian Earth Sci.: X 6, 100068 (2021).
21. Zhen, S. et al. The Paleozoic-Mesozoic magmatictectonic activities and their geological implications in the Zhangjiakou-Xuanhua district, northern margin of the North China Craton. Acta Petrol. Sin. 37, 1619–1652 (2021).
22. Moghazy, N. M. et al. Natural radioactivity, radiological hazard and petrographical studies on Aswan granites used as building materials in Egypt. Appl. Sci. 11, 6471 (2021).10.3390/app11146471 ↗
23. Fei, W. & Heinz, K. Thermal damage evolution of granite under slow and high-speed heating conditions. Comput. Geotech. 123, 103590 (2020).10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103590 ↗
24. Yang, S. Q. et al. An experimental investigation on thermal damage and failure mechanical behavior of granite after exposure to different high temperature treatments. Geothermics 65, 180–197 (2017).10.1016/j.geothermics.2016.09.008 ↗
25. Goedicke, H. Some remarks on stone quarrying in the Egyptian middle kingdom (2060–1786 B.C.). J. Am. Res. Cent. Egypt 3, 43–50 (1964).10.2307/40000984 ↗
26. Helmi, A. & Attia, S. Repellency effect of some biochemical extracts of castor bean leaf on two sap-sucking insect pests. Egypt. Acad. J. Biol. Sci. 10, 37–47 (2017).
27. Șolea, L. C. & Deleanu, L. Flammability tests on hot surface for castor oil. Mech. Test. Diagnosis 10, 30–34 (2021).10.35219/mtd.2020.4.04 ↗
28. Jabeen, N., Nirala, A. K. Digital holographic interferometry for temperature measurement of oil lamp flames with different wick thicknesses. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 52, 101964 (2022).10.1016/j.seta.2022.101964 ↗
29. Jones, J. Waste vegetable oil firings. Ceram. Monthly 772, 22–23 (2017).
30. Ooi, T. C. et al. The effect of charcoal combustion on iron-ore sintering performance and emission of persistent organic pollutants. Combust. Flame 158, 979–987 (2011).10.1016/j.combustflame.2011.01.020 ↗
31. Wainwright, G. A. Rekhmirê's metal-workers. Man 44, 94–98 (1944).10.2307/2791739 ↗
32. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom (University of California Press, 1978).
33. Snape, S. Rekhmire and the tomb of the well‐known soldier. In: Ancient Egyptian Tombs. (Wiley–Blackwell, 2011).10.1002/9781444393743 ↗
34. Barton, D. C. Notes on the disintegration of granite in Egypt. J. Geol. 24, 382–393 (1916).10.1086/622345 ↗
35. Hussain, S. U. et al. Optimization and characterization of acid catalyzed castor biodiesel and its blends. J. Turk. Chem. Soc. Sect. A: Chem. 9, 1007–1022 (2022).10.18596/jotcsa.1116677 ↗
36. Waterfield, C. G. et al. Thermodynamic investigation of disorder in the hydrates of sodium carbonate. Trans. Faraday Soc. 64, 868–874 (1968).10.1039/tf9686400868 ↗
37. Hartman, M., Trnka, O., Veselý, V. & Svoboda, K. Thermal dehydration of the sodium carbonate hydrates. Chem. Eng. Commun. 185, 1–16 (2001).10.1080/00986440108912851 ↗
38. NIST Chemistry WebBook. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://webbook.nist.gov/ (2025).
39. Petri, R. J., Terry D. C., Ray R. T., Leonard G. M. High-Temperature Molten Salt Thermal Energy Storage Systems. (Institute of Gas Technology, 1980).
40. Ijagbemi, C. O., Adepo, S. O. & Ademola, K. S. Evaluation of combustion characteristics of charcoal from different tropical wood species. IOSR J. Eng. 4, 50–57 (2014).
41. Dardeniz, G. Was ancient Egypt the only supplier of Natron? New research reveals major Anatolian deposits. Anatolica 41, 191–202 (2015).
42. Taher, A. G. Inland saline lakes of Wadi El Natrun Depression, Egypt. Int. J. Salt Lake Res. 8, 149–169 (1999).10.1023/A:1009027813903 ↗
43. Douty, A. Violent storms unleash hordes of venomous scorpions in Egypt. AccuWeather. https://www.accuweather.com/en/severe-weather/violent-storms-unleash-hordes-venomous-scorpions-egypt/1047653 (2021).