Characterizing pigments, dyes, and fibers in murals from Bezeklik Cave 51 and Tuyoq Cave 2
Source abstract
Abstract
Turpan’s mural paintings have been extensively studied, but inconsistent methodologies hinder comparison. We proposed a standardized framework by analyzing murals in Bezeklik Cave 51 and Tuyoq Cave 2, representing distinct yet interconnected styles and traditions in Turpan of Xinjiang, China. AMS 14 C dating dates Cave 51 to 1025–1159 AD and Cave 2 to 424–564 AD (95.4% probability). Pigments from Cave 51 include gypsum, carbon black, atacamite, and red lead, with lead dioxide as a discoloration product. Cave 2 features gypsum, atacamite, hematite, and indigo. Both caves share a ground layer manufacturing technique: a coarse mud layer with wheat husks and straws, topped by a fine mud layer with hemp fibers, consistent with 4 th –14 th -century practices in northwestern China. Our results reveal spatial and temporal variations in material selection and technological practices, enabling direct comparisons and a better understanding of Silk Road cultural, artistic, and technological traditions.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis · Building materials and conservation · Conservation Techniques and Studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (73)
Show source-provided references
1. Shao, W. et al. Thirty years’ spatio-temporal evolution of desertification degrees and driving factors in Turpan–Hami Basin, Xinjiang, China. Ecol. Indic. 166, 112484 (2024).10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112484 ↗
2. Turpan Regional Cultural Relics Management Institute. Brief report of archaeological clearance of Bezeklik Qianfo Caves. Cult. Relics. 8, 97–101 (1985).
3. Research Center for Frontier and Ethnic Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences & Academia Turfanica. The excavation of a Buddhist temple complex of the Qocho Uyghur kingdom in the middle of the west zone of the Tuyoq caves in Shanshan County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Chin. Archaeol. 20, 111–122 (2020).10.1515/char-2020-0009 ↗
4. Xia, L. Periodization and genealogy of Gaochang grottoes. Acta Archaeol. Sin. 2, 289–290 (2022).
5. Zhou, W., Zhang, Y., Fang, K., Zhang, S. & He, J. Research on the mural making technology of Turpan Tuyugou grottoes. West. Archaeol. 1, 282–295 (2021).
6. Zhao, Y. Analysis on pigments of Tang Dynasty mural paintings from several places in Xinjiang. Cult. Ind. 4, 119–121 (2021).
7. Lin, L. Periodization and chronology of early Gaochang grottoes. Relics Museol. 3, 86–95 (2019).
8. Kuzmin, N. Pilgrimage in Tangut Xia: study of Tangut epigraphy from Dunhuang and Tangut woodblock prints from Bezeklik (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2023).
9. Yakup, A. & Li, X. An old Uyghur text written on a wooden plate recently discovered in the Tuyoq grottoes in Turfan. Acta Orient. Acad. Sci. Hung. 71, 303–317 (2018).
10. Raschmann, S. Three new fragments of the Altun Yaruk Sudur from Bezeklik. ACTA Orient 65, 271–284 (2012).10.1556/AOrient.65.2012.3.2 ↗
11. Deng, Y., Xu, D. & Lin, Z. A preliminary analysis of the cloister mural painting process of Bezeklik Cave 15. Cult. Relics World. 1, 108–113 (2020).
12. Singh, M. R. & Mani, B. R. Characterization of pigments and binders in mural painting fragments from Bezeklik, China. Indian J. Hist. Sci. 54, 348–360 (2019).10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i3/49745 ↗
13. Sharma, A. & Singh, M. R. Multi-analytical investigation of the composition and binders used in the earthen support layer of fifth-fourteenth century CE painted fragments from Bezeklik, China. Stud. Conserv. 65, 221–237 (2020).10.1080/00393630.2019.1625592 ↗
14. Zhang, Y. Study on diseases of the Tuyugou grottoes and its countermeasures (Master thesis, Northwest University, Xi’an, 2021).
15. Chen, W., Zhang, J., He, F., Sun, G. & Tian, L. The disease characteristics and conservation technique of the Bezeklik grottoes at Turpan in Xinjiang. In Engineering Geological for Society and Territory (eds. Lollino, G. et al.) 199–204 (Springer, Cham, 2015).10.1007/978-3-319-09408-3_32 ↗
16. Xing, L. Content and art expression of ‘Saddharmapundarika Sutra’ Center on Bezeklik 51 Wat (Master thesis, Xiamen University, 2018).
17. Li, Z. Conservation of mural paintings and colored sculptures in silk road caves (Science Press, 2005).
18. Dighe, B., Singh, M., Mani, B. & Sahay, B. Oryza sativa L. (rice) in the ancient earthen plasters of painted fragments from Bezeklik, China. Stud. Conserv. 64, 273–283 (2019).10.1080/00393630.2018.1508956 ↗
19. Wan, Q. et al. Understanding the manufacture of Hetian Administration Banknotes from Xinjiang using low- and high-resolution analytical methods. Stud. Conserv. 69, 537–556 (2024).10.1080/00393630.2024.2309423 ↗
20. Li, T., Ji, J. X., Zhou, Z. & Shi, J. L. A multi-analytical approach to investigate date-unknown paintings of Chinese Taoist priests. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 9, 395–404 (2017).10.1007/s12520-015-0293-9 ↗
21. Shi, J. & Li, T. Technical investigation of 15th and 19th century Chinese paper currencies: fiber use and pigment identification. J. Raman Spectrosc. 44, 892–898 (2013).10.1002/jrs.4297 ↗
22. Ang, J. F. Cellulose in food matrix quantification. United States Patent 5646045 (1997).
23. Li, T. Identifying sources of fibre in Chinese handmade papers by phytoliths: a methodological exploration. Sci. Technol. Archaeol. Res. 4, 1–11 (2018).
24. Wang, X. et al. Comparison of dry ashing and wet oxidation methods for recovering articulated husk phytoliths of foxtail millet and common millet from archaeological soil. J. Archaeol. Sci. 45, 234–239 (2014).10.1016/j.jas.2014.03.001 ↗
25. Parr, J. F., Lentfer, C. J. & Boyd, W. E. A comparative analysis of wet and dry ashing techniques for the extraction of phytoliths from plant material. J. Archaeol. Sci. 28, 875–886 (2001).10.1006/jasc.2000.0623 ↗
26. Burgio, L. & Clark, R. J. H. Library of FT-Raman spectra of pigments, minerals, pigment media and varnishes, and supplement to existing library of Raman spectra of pigments with visible excitation. Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 57, 1491–1521 (2001).10.1016/S1386-1425(00)00495-9 ↗
27. Bell, I. M., Clark, R. J. & Gibbs, P. J. Raman spectroscopic library of natural and synthetic pigments (pre-1850 AD). Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 53A, 2159–2179 (1997).10.1016/S1386-1425(97)00140-6 ↗
28. Sarma, L. P., Prasad, P. S. R. & Ravikumar, N. Raman spectroscopic study of phase transitions in natural gypsum. J. Raman Spectrosc. 29, 851–856 (1998).10.1002/(SICI)1097-4555(199809)29:9<851::AID-JRS313>3.0.CO;2-S ↗
29. Carbone, M., Ballirano, P. & Caminiti, R. Kinetics of gypsum dehydration at reduced pressure: an energy dispersive X-ray diffraction study. Eur. J. Mineral. 20, 621–627 (2008).10.1127/0935-1221/2008/0020-1826 ↗
30. Bouchard, M. & Smith, D. C. Catalogue of 45 reference Raman spectra of minerals concerning research in art history or archaeology, especially on corroded metals and coloured glass. Spectrochim. Acta. A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 59, 2247–2266 (2003).10.1016/S1386-1425(03)00069-6 ↗
31. Gliozzo, E. & Ionescu, C. Pigments—lead-based whites, reds, yellows and oranges and their alteration phases. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 14, 17 (2022).10.1007/s12520-021-01407-z ↗
32. Frost, R. L. Raman spectroscopy of selected copper minerals of significance in corrosion. Spectrochim. Acta. A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 59, 1195–1204 (2003).10.1016/S1386-1425(02)00315-3 ↗
33. Coccato, A. et al. Raman spectroscopy of green minerals and reaction products with an application in cultural heritage research. J. Raman Spectrosc. 47, 1429–1443 (2016).10.1002/jrs.4956 ↗
34. Pérez-Alonso, M. et al. Analysis of bulk and inorganic degradation products of stones, mortars and wall paintings by portable Raman microprobe spectroscopy. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 379, 42–50 (2004).10.1007/s00216-004-2496-2 ↗
35. Sadezky, A., Muckenhuber, H., Grothe, H., Niessner, R. & Pöschl, U. Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: spectral analysis and structural information. Carbon 43, 1731–1742 (2005).10.1016/j.carbon.2005.02.018 ↗
36. Costantini, I. et al. Darkening of lead- and iron-based pigments on late Gothic Italian wall paintings: energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence, μ-Raman, and powder X-ray diffraction analyses for diagnosis: presence of β-PbO2 (plattnerite) and α-PbO2 (scrutinyite). J. Raman Spectrosc. 51, 680–692 (2020).10.1002/jrs.5817 ↗
37. Zoppi, A., Lofrumento, C., Castellucci, E. M. & Migliorini, M. G. The Raman spectrum of hematite: possible indicator for a compositional or firing distinction among Terra sigiliata wares. Ann. Chim. 95, 239–246 (2005).10.1002/adic.200590026 ↗
38. Baran, A., Fiedler, A., Schulz, H. & Baranska, M. In situ Raman and IR spectroscopic analysis of indigo dye. Anal. Methods 2, 1372 (2010).10.1039/c0ay00311e ↗
39. Osticioli, I. et al. Analysis of natural and artificial ultramarine blue pigments using laser induced breakdown and pulsed Raman spectroscopy, statistical analysis and light microscopy. Spectrochim. Acta. A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 73, 525–531 (2009).10.1016/j.saa.2008.11.028 ↗
40. Colomban, P. Lapis lazuli as unexpected blue pigment in Iranian Lâjvardina ceramics. J. Raman Spectrosc. 34, 420–423 (2003).10.1002/jrs.1014 ↗
41. Schmidt, C. M., Walton, M. S. & Trentelman, K. Characterization of lapis lazuli pigments using a multi-technique analytical approach: implications for identification and geological provenancing. Anal. Chem. 81, 8513–8518 (2009).10.1021/ac901436g ↗
42. Bicchieri, M. et al. Characterization of azurite and lazurite based pigments by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Spectrochim. Acta B At. Spectrosc. 56, 915–922 (2001).10.1016/S0584-8547(01)00228-2 ↗
43. Chen, S. et al. Rapid determination of 93 banned industrial dyes in beverage, fish, cookie using solid-supported liquid-liquid extraction and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. Food Chem. 388, 132976 (2022).10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132976 ↗
44. Li, L., Li, S. & Wang, C. Regularities of ionization of 92 Industrial dyestuffs by Q-orbitrap-high resolution mass spectrometry. Phys. Test. Chem. Anal. Part B Chem. Anal. 56, 308–314 (2020).
45. Annemarie, K. et al. Mapping natural dyes in archeological textiles by imaging mass spectrometry. Sci. Rep. 9, 2331 (2019).10.1038/s41598-019-38706-4 ↗
46. Isenberg, I. H. Pulp and paper microscopy (The Institute of Paper Chemistry, 1967).
47. Clark, F. C. Paper testing methods: microscopical, chemical and physical processes described with an account of the apparatus employed (TAPPI Publishing Corporation, 1920).
48. Li, T. Indigo and madder dyed 11th to 13th–century Chinese papers unearthed at Khara Khoto in northwestern China. Tangut Res. 3, 3–14 (2017).
49. Collings, T. & Milner, D. The identification of oriental paper-making fibers (I). Pap. Conserv. 3, 51–79 (1978).10.1080/03094227.1978.9638509 ↗
50. Collings, T. & Milner, D. The identification of non-wood paper-making fibers (II). Pap. Conserv. 4, 10–19 (1979).10.1080/03094227.1979.9638513 ↗
51. Collings, T. & Milner, D. The identification of non-wood paper-making fibers (III). Pap. Conserv. 7, 24–27 (1982).10.1080/03094227.1982.9638445 ↗
52. Collings, T. & Milner, D. The nature and identification of cotton paper making fibers in paper. Pap. Conserv. 8, 59–71 (1984).10.1080/03094227.1984.9638458 ↗
53. Ilvessalo-Pfäffli, M.-S. Fiber Atlas: identification of papermaking fibers (Springer, 1995).10.1007/978-3-662-07212-7 ↗
54. Chen, T. et al. Identification of Cannabis fiber from the Astana cemeteries, Xinjiang, China, with reference to its unique decorative utilization. Econ. Bot. 68, 59–66 (2014).10.1007/s12231-014-9261-z ↗
55. Jiang, H.-E. et al. A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang, China. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108, 414–422 (2006).10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034 ↗
56. Zhao, M., Jiang, H. & Grassa, C. J. Archaeobotanical studies of the Yanghai cemetery in Turpan, Xinjiang, China. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 11, 1143–1153 (2019).10.1007/s12520-018-0719-2 ↗
57. Ball, T. et al. A morphometric study of variance in articulated dendritic phytolith wave lobes within selected species of Triticeae and Aveneae. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 26, 85–97 (2017).10.1007/s00334-015-0551-x ↗
58. Ryan, P. Phytolith studies in archaeology. In: Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology (ed. Smith, C.) 8572–8584 (Springer International Publishing, 2020).10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2258 ↗
59. Tubb, H. J., Hodson, M. J. & Hodson, G. C. The inflorescence Papillae of the Triticeae: a new tool for taxonomic and archaeological research. Ann. Bot. 72, 537–545 (1993).10.1006/anbo.1993.1142 ↗
60. Wang, Y. & Lü, H. Research and application of phytolith (China Ocean Press, 1993).
61. Yao, Y. F. et al. Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the human–environment interactions during the 9th–13th centuries at Turpan, Xinjiang on the ancient Silk Road. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 29, 539–552 (2020).10.1007/s00334-019-00764-z ↗
62. Tang, Y. N., Li, X., Yao, Y. F., Ferguson, D. K. & Li, C. S. Environmental reconstruction of Tuyoq in the fifth century and its bearing on Buddhism in Turpan, Xinjiang, China. PLoS One 9, e86363 (2014).10.1371/journal.pone.0086363 ↗
63. Ahmed, Y. A., Ali, S. & Ghallab, A. Hair histology as a tool for forensic identification of some domestic animal species. EXCLI J 17, 1611–2156 (2018).
64. Gao, L. Multi-spectroscopic characterization of natural organic dyes in ancient wall paintings-based on Kizil Cave Temples (Master thesis, Zhejiang University, 2021).
65. Yang, J., Zhou, Z. B., Lu, T. J. & Shen, L. Investigation of gold gilding materials and techniques applied in the murals of Kizil Grottoes, Xinjiang, China. Appl. Sci. 12, 11202 (2022).10.3390/app122111202 ↗
66. Zhao, S. et al. Revealing ancient yellow colorants in painted artworks along the Silk Road (6th-10th century AD). J. Archaeol. Sci. 169, 106039 (2024).10.1016/j.jas.2024.106039 ↗
67. Zhang, W. et al. In-situ nondestructive analysis of the mural pigments in the Northern Liang Caves at the Tiantishan Grottoes. Dunhuang Res. 4, 128–140 (2019).
68. Zhang, W., Su, B., Shan, Z. & Yu, Z. Scientific analysis of Northern Wei mural painting color sculptures in Caves 257 and 259 of Mogao Caves. Relics Museol. 1, 75–87 (2023).
69. Jia, S. Proofreading and annotation of essential techniques for the welfare of the people (Agriculture Press, 1982).
70. Yan, J. et al. Study on the mural painting technique and material of Han Xiu’s tomb in Tang Dynasty. Archaeol. Cult. Relics. 2, 117–127 (2016).
71. Lei, Y., Wen, M. & Cheng, X. Investigation of the murals preserved in the temples under Chieftain Lu in Liancheng, Yongdeng County, Gansu Province. Palace Mus. J. 2, 133–154, 163 (2012).
72. Li, B. et al. Analysis of pigments in Yuan Dynasty tomb murals in Xi’an. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 35, 110–118 (2023).
73. Gao, Y. et al. Pigments, dyes and the restoration history of the painted figurines of the Tang Dynasty from the Astana tombs revealed by comprehensive chemical analysis. ChemistrySelect 7, e202202342 (2022).10.1002/slct.202202342 ↗