journal article·2026-04-21Open access

Integrated digital casting: a new method for simulating piece-mold techniques of ancient bronzes

Xinran Song, Zijun Dong, Anchuan Fan

npj Heritage Science· Volume 14· Issue 1

Abstract

Chinese ritual bronzes represent one of the pinnacles of technological and artistic achievement during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The methods used to study these artifacts are of critical importance to archeological and heritage research. The traditional piece-mold casting experiment used to create these bronzes faced significant challenges, including the absence of standardization, lengthy production cycles, and great technical difficulty. This study proposes an innovative simulation method that integrates digital modeling and 3D printing to address specific challenges in traditional piece-mold casting experiments. Using a Shang dynasty Ding (tripod pot) as a case study, the approach employs digital modeling and substitute materials to standardize mold design, enhance precision, and reduce production time from several weeks to under 40 h. Preserving technological features such as casting joints and mold marks, the method provides a reproducible heuristic framework for exploring hypotheses about ancient sectional mold design, craft education, and technical validation.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · Image Processing and 3D Reconstruction · Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (33)

Show source-provided references
1. Lin, S. et al. Crafting excellence: reconstructing the mould technology of Shang period bronze ritual vessels at Anyang, China. J. Archaeol. Sci. 183, 106382 (2025).10.1016/j.jas.2025.106382 ↗
2. Hunt, L. B. The long history of lost wax casting: over five thousand years of art and craftsmanship. Gold. Bull. 13, 63–79 (1980).10.1007/BF03215456 ↗
3. Liu, N. et al. A new FTIR spectrophotometric method for estimating the firing temperature of ceramic bronze-casting moulds from the Houma foundry, China. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 52, 104256 (2023).
4. Xu B (ed). Contextual Dictionary of Chinese Cultural Knowledge. Singapore: Springer, 2025.
5. Cheng, W. Y. & Shen, C. Bronze casting clay moulds and production sequences: understanding knowledge and Organization of the Artisans in Late Shang (14th–11th century BC), China. Asian Archaeol. 6, 137–151 (2022).10.1007/s41826-022-00057-x ↗
6. Li, H. et al. Production and circulation of bronzes among the regional states in the Western Zhou Dynasty. J. Archaeol. Sci. 121, 105191 (2020).10.1016/j.jas.2020.105191 ↗
7. Garbacz-Klempka, A. et al. Reconstruction of the casting technology in the Bronze Age on the basis of investigations and visualisation of casting moulds. Arch. Found Eng. 17, (2017).10.1515/afe-2017-0113 ↗
8. Yang, H. et al. Solidification simulation of the Anyang niuzun: insights into late Shang Dynasty bronze casting techniques. J. Archaeol. Sci. 179, 106243 (2025).10.1016/j.jas.2025.106243 ↗
9. Wang, Q. & Priewe, S. A technical study of the double-ram Zun Ancient Chinese Bronze Vessel in the British Museum. In Conference: Radiance Between Bronze and Jade—Archaeology, Art, and Culture of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. 257–283 (Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei).
10. Wang, Q. et al. Manufacturing techniques of Eastern Zhou bronze ding vessels with short legs: a case study of bronze ding (1949, 0711.1) in the British Museum collection. Hist. Metall. 53, 1–9 (2019).
11. Chase, W. T. Chinese bronzes: casting, finishing, patination and corrosion. Ancient and historic metals: Conserv and Sci Research. 3, 85–117 (1994).
12. Anyang Work Station, Institute of Archaeology, CASS 2000–01 excavation of the Shang Bronze foundry site at Xiaomintun Southeast in Anyang. Chin. Archaeol. 7, 32–39 (2007).
13. Yue Z. & Yue H. The study on the casting technique of the BronzeJue-cups of the Yinxu Site. Cult Relics. 35-52+1 (in Chinese) https://doi.org/10.13619/j.cnki.cn11-1532/k.2018.04.004 (2018).10.13619/j.cnki.cn11-1532/k.2018.04.004 ↗
14. NIWA Takashi An experimental archaeological study for elucidating the history of East Asian casting technology focusing on comparative experiments. Sci. Conserv. 55, 37–52 (2016). (in Japanese).
15. Feng, F. et al. A replica study on the casting technology of Shang dynasty Bronze Gu excavated from Yinxu. Archaeol 5, 532–541 (1982) (in Chinese).
16. Cai, Q. & Dong, Z. Ring-joint techniques and mold casting simulation experiment for Bronze Snaffle in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Foundry 67, 703–706 (2018). (in Chinese).
17. Ma, C. Ancient Chinese Bronzes. (Shanghai People’s Publishing House, Shanghai, 1982) (in Chinese).
18. Su, R. Archaeologist-led studies on bronze casting in Ancient China: 1928–2000. Chin. Ann. Hist. Sci. Technol. 1, 80 (2017).10.3724/SP.J.1461.2017.01080 ↗
19. Dong Y. A simulated casting experiment on the early western Zhou Round Zun. Cult Relics Central China. 80–87 (2010) (in Chinese).
20. Tan, D., Xu, H. & Huang L. A study of the techniques of bronze casting with clay molds in Bronze Age China. Acta Archaeol. Sinica 211–250 (1999).
21. Yang, C. et al. Calcination temperature of clay mold for casting Chinese ancient bronze: theoretical analysis and simulation experiments. Foundry 68, 648–651 (2019). (in Chinese).
22. Iftekar, S. F. et al. Advancements and limitations in 3D printing materials and technologies: a critical review. Polymers 15, 2519 (2023).10.3390/polym15112519 ↗
23. Balletti, C., Ballarin, M. & Guerra, F. 3D printing: state of the art and future perspectives. J. Cult. Herit. 26, 172–182 (2017).10.1016/j.culher.2017.02.010 ↗
24. Cano-Vicent, A. et al. Fused deposition modelling: current status, methodology, applications and future prospects. Addit. Manuf. 47, 102378 (2021).
25. Rajan, K. et al. Fused deposition modeling: process, materials, parameters, properties, and applications. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 120, 1531–1570 (2022).10.1007/s00170-022-08860-7 ↗
26. Joseph, T. M. et al. 3D printing of polylactic acid: recent advances and opportunities. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 125, 1015–1035 (2023).10.1007/s00170-022-10795-y ↗
27. Sterp Moga, E., Sanchez-Ortiz, A. & Hernandez-Munoz, O. 3D printing of molds for the creation of facsimiles and volumetric reintegrations in wax anatomical sculptures. Herit. Sci. 10, 1–16 (2022).10.1186/s40494-022-00838-8 ↗
28. Bagley, R. W. Shang ritual bronzes: casting technique and vessel design. Arch. Asian Art. 43, 6–20 (1990).
29. Shahrubudin, N., Lee, T. C. & Ramlan, R. An overview on 3D printing technology: technological, materials, and applications. Procedia Manuf. 35, 1286–1296 (2019).10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.089 ↗
30. Calignano, F. et al. Overview on additive manufacturing technologies. Proc. IEEE 105, 593–612 (2017).10.1109/JPROC.2016.2625098 ↗
31. Hsueh, M. H. et al. Effect of printing parameters on the thermal and mechanical properties of 3D-printed pla and petg, using fused deposition modeling. Polymers 13, 1758 (2021).10.3390/polym13111758 ↗
32. Neumüller, M. et al. 3D printing for cultural heritage: preservation, accessibility, research and education/3D research challenges in cultural heritage: a roadmap in digital heritage preservation. 119–134. (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2014).10.1007/978-3-662-44630-0_9 ↗
33. Jin, Z. Y. et al. Luminescence study of the initial, pre-casting firing temperatures of clay mould and core used for bronze casting at Yinxu (13c. BC∼ 11c. BC). Quat. Geochronol. 30, 374–380 (2015).10.1016/j.quageo.2015.04.009 ↗