journal article·2025-03-13Open access

Locomotion control of Cyborg insects by using ultra-thin, self-adhesive electrode film on abdominal surface

Shumpei Katayama, Keigo Ando, Sunghoon Lee, Zhi Jiang, Xiaodong Chen, Tomoyuki Yokota, Hirotaka Sato, Shinjiro Umezu, Kenjiro Fukuda, Takao Someya

npj Flexible Electronics· Volume 9· Issue 1

Abstract

Abstract Cyborg insects are living organisms combined with artificial systems, allowing flexible behavioral control while preserving biological functions. Conventional control methods often electrically stimulate sensory organs like antennae and cerci but these invasive methods can impair vital functions. This study shows a minimally invasive approach using flexible, ultra-thin electrodes on the cockroach’s abdomen, avoiding contact with primary sensory organs. Using liquid evaporation for film adhesion provides a biocompatible process with excellent adhesive strength and electrical durability. Body surface stimulating component structures formed by utilizing an insect’s natural movement showed higher stability than conventional methods. These enable effective control of both turning and straight-line movements. This minimally invasive method maintains the insect’s natural behavior while enhancing cyborg functionality, extending the potential applications.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Insect and Arachnid Ecology and Behavior · Neurobiology and Insect Physiology Research · Biomimetic flight and propulsion mechanisms

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (54)

Show source-provided references
1. Romano, D. et al. A review on animal-robot interaction: from bio-hybrid organisms to mixed societies. Biological Cybernetics 113, 201–225 (2019).10.1007/s00422-018-0787-5 ↗
2. Takemori, T. et al. Gait design of a snake robot by connecting simple shapes. SSRR 2016 - International Symposium on Safety, Security and Rescue Robotics, 189–194 (2016).10.1109/SSRR.2016.7784297 ↗
3. Bing, Z. et al. Lateral flexion of a compliant spine improves motor performance in a bioinspired mouse robot. Sci. Robot. 8, 85 (2023).10.1126/scirobotics.adg7165 ↗
4. Xie, Z. et al. Octopus-inspired sensorized soft arm for environmental interaction. Sci. Robot. 8, 84 (2023).10.1126/scirobotics.adh7852 ↗
5. Yun, S. et al. Remote-controlled fully implantable neural stimulator for freely moving small animal. Electronics 8, 6 (2019).10.3390/electronics8060706 ↗
6. Zhou, Z. et al. Pigeon robot for navigation guided by remote control: system construction and functional verification. J Bionic Eng. 18, 184–196 (2021).10.1007/s42235-021-0013-3 ↗
7. Kim, D. et al. Parasitic robot system for waypoint navigation of turtle. J Bionic Eng. 14, 327–335 (2017).10.1016/S1672-6529(16)60401-8 ↗
8. Kobayashi, N. et al. Artificial control of swimming in goldfish by brain stimulation: Confirmation of the midbrain nuclei as the swimming center. Neurosci. Lett. 452, 42–46 (2009).10.1016/j.neulet.2009.01.035 ↗
9. Xu, N. et al. Developing biohybrid robotic jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) for free-swimming tests in the laboratory and in the field. Bio. Protoc. 11, e3974 (2021).10.21769/BioProtoc.3974 ↗
10. Vo-Doan, T. et al. A cyborg insect reveals a function of a muscle in free flight. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2022, 9780504 (2022).10.34133/2022/9780504 ↗
11. Bozkurt, A. et al. MEMS based bioelectronic neuromuscular interfaces for insect cyborg flight control. 2008 IEEE 21st International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems. 160–163 (2008).10.1109/MEMSYS.2008.4443617 ↗
12. Yu, L. et al. Experimental verification on steering flight of honeybee by electrical stimulation. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2022, 9895837 (2022).10.34133/2022/9895837 ↗
13. Tran-Ngoc, P. et al. Intelligent insect-computer hybrid robot: installing innate obstacle negotiation and onboard human detection onto cyborg insect. Adv. Intell. Syst. 5, 2200319 (2023).10.1002/aisy.202200319 ↗
14. Liu, P. et al. Omnidirectional jump control of a locust-computer hybrid robot. Soft Robotics 10, 40–51 (2023).10.1089/soro.2021.0137 ↗
15. Nguyen, H. et al. Efficient autonomous navigation for terrestrial insect-machine hybrid systems. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 376, 132988 (2023).10.1016/j.snb.2022.132988 ↗
16. Kakei, Y. et al. Integration of body-mounted ultrasoft organic solar cell on cyborg insects with intact mobility. npj Flex. Electron. 6, 78 (2022).10.1038/s41528-022-00207-2 ↗
17. Hayashi, T. et al. Cyborg Insects Powered by An Insect-Mountable Biofuel Cell. 2022 International Symposium on Micro-NanoMechatronics and Human Science, MHS 2022., 1–3 (2022).10.1109/MHS56725.2022.10091981 ↗
18. Reissman, T. et al. Electrical power generation from insect flight. Active and Passive Smart Structures and Integrated Systems 2011, 797702 (2011).10.1117/12.880702 ↗
19. Dirafzoon, A. et al. Poster abstract: Cyborg-insect networks for mapping of unknown environments. 2014 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems, 216–216 (2014).10.1109/ICCPS.2014.6843729 ↗
20. Iyer, V. et al. Living IoT: A Flying Wireless Platform on Live Insects. MobiCom ‘19: 25th Annual International Conference Mobile Computing Networking 5, 1–15 (2019).
21. Lin, Q. et al. Resilient conductive membrane synthesized by in-situ polymerisation for wearable non-invasive electronics on moving appendages of cyborg insect. npj Flex. Electron. 7, 42 (2023).10.1038/s41528-023-00274-z ↗
22. Proctor, J. L. & Holmes, P. The effects of feedback on stability and maneuverability of a phase-reduced model for cockroach locomotion. Biol. Cybern. 112, 387–401 (2018).10.1007/s00422-018-0762-1 ↗
23. Weihmann, T. et al. Speed dependent phase shifts and gait changes in cockroaches running on substrates of different slipperiness. Fron. Zool. 14, 54 (2017).10.1186/s12983-017-0232-y ↗
24. Domenici, P. et al. Cockroaches keep predators guessing by using preferred escape trajectories. Curr. Biol. 18, 1792–1796 (2008).10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.062 ↗
25. Tsukuda, Y. et al. Calmbots: Exploring Madagascar Cockroaches as Living Ubiquitous Interfaces. Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Novel Design Approaches Technologies. 13308, 522–541 (2022).
26. Latif, T. & Bozkurt, A. Line following terrestrial insect biobots. 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 972–975 (2012).10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346095 ↗
27. Comer, C. & Baba, Y. Active touch in orthopteroid insects: Behaviours, multisensory substrates and evolution. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. B Biol Sci. 366, 3006–3015 (2011).10.1098/rstb.2011.0149 ↗
28. Ye, S. et al. The antennal system and cockroach evasive behavior. I. Roles for visual and mechanosensory cues in the response. J. Comp. Physiol. A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural Behav. Physiol. 189, 89–96 (2003).10.1007/s00359-002-0383-x ↗
29. Camhi, J. M. & Tom, W. The escape behavior of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. J. Comp. Physiol. 128, 193–201 (1978).10.1007/BF00656852 ↗
30. Li, G. & Zhang, D. Brain-computer interface controlled cyborg: Establishing a functional information transfer pathway from human brain to cockroach brain. PLoS ONE 11, e0150667 (2016).10.1371/journal.pone.0150667 ↗
31. Erickson, J. C. et al. Effective stimulus parameters for directed locomotion in Madagascar hissing cockroach biobot. PLoS ONE 10, e0134348 (2015).10.1371/journal.pone.0134348 ↗
32. Li, Y. et al. Cercus electric stimulation enables cockroach with trajectory control and spatial cognition training. Cyborg Bionic Syst., 0154 (2024).
33. Liu, Z. et al. Locomotion control of cyborg insects by charge-balanced biphasic electrical stimulation. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 5, 0134 (2024).10.34133/cbsystems.0134 ↗
34. Sanchez, C. J. et al. Locomotion control of hybrid cockroach robots. J R Soc Interface. 12, 20141363 (2015).10.1098/rsif.2014.1363 ↗
35. Camhi, J. M. Behavioral switching in cockroaches: transformations of tactile reflexes during righting behavior. J. Comp. Physiol. 113, 283–301 (1977).10.1007/BF00620403 ↗
36. Visvanathan, K. & Gianchandani, Y. B. Locomotion response of airborne, ambulatory and aquatic insects to thermal stimulation using piezoceramic microheaters. J. Micromech. Microeng. 21, 125002 (2011).10.1088/0960-1317/21/12/125002 ↗
37. Lin, Q. et al. H. A newly developed chemical locomotory booster for cyborg insect to sustain its activity and to enhance covering performance. Sensors Actuators B: Chemical 399, 134774 (2024).10.1016/j.snb.2023.134774 ↗
38. Dong, K. et al. Scalable electrophysiology of millimeter-scale animals with electrode devices. BME Front. 4, 0034 (2023).10.34133/bmef.0034 ↗
39. Shoji, K. et al. Autonomous environmental monitoring by self-powered biohybrid robot. 2016 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation, 629–634 (2016).10.1109/ICMA.2016.7558636 ↗
40. Chiu, C. W. et al. Electrode-immune system interface monitor through neural stimulation in American cockroach (Periplaneta Americana). Electrochimica Acta 68, 81–87 (2012).10.1016/j.electacta.2012.02.046 ↗
41. Zhou, Z. et al. Progresses of animal robots: a historical review and perspectiveness. Heliyon 8, e11499 (2022).10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11499 ↗
42. Sato, H. & Maharbiz, M. M. Recent developments in the remote radio control of insect flight. Front Neurosci. 4, 199 (2010).10.3389/fnins.2010.00199 ↗
43. Latif, T. et al. In vitro electrochemical assessment of electrodes for neurostimulation in roach biobots. PLoS ONE 13, e0203880 (2018).10.1371/journal.pone.0203880 ↗
44. Bozkurt, A. et al. Insect-machine interface based neurocybernetics. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 56, 1727–1733 (2009).10.1109/TBME.2009.2015460 ↗
45. Camhi, J. M. & Johnson, E. N. High-frequency steering maneuvers mediated by tactile cues: antennal wall-following in the cockroach. J Exp Biol. 202, 631–643 (1999).10.1242/jeb.202.5.631 ↗
46. Baba, Y. et al. Collision avoidance by running insects: Antennal guidance in cockroaches. J Exp Biol. 213, 2294–2302 (2010).10.1242/jeb.036996 ↗
47. Harley, C. M. et al. Characterization of obstacle negotiation behaviors in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis. J Exp Biol. 212, 1463–1467 (2009).10.1242/jeb.028381 ↗
48. Fraser, P. J. Cercal ablation modifies tethered flight behaviour of cockroach. Nature 268, 523–524 (1977).10.1038/268523a0 ↗
49. Jiang, Y. et al. A universal interface for plug-and-play assembly of stretchable devices. Nature 614, 456–462 (2023).10.1038/s41586-022-05579-z ↗
50. Vincent, J. F. V. & Wegst, U. G. K. Design and mechanical properties of insect cuticle. Arthropod Struct Dev. 33, 187–199 (2004).10.1016/j.asd.2004.05.006 ↗
51. Li, C. et al. Cockroaches use diverse strategies to self-right on the ground. J Exp Biol. 222, jeb186080 (2019).10.1242/jeb.186080 ↗
52. Ritzmann, R. E. et al. Convergent evolution and locomotion through complex terrain by insects, vertebrates and robots. Arthropod Structure Development 33, 361–379 (2004).10.1016/j.asd.2004.05.001 ↗
53. Yamagishi, K. et al. Tissue-adhesive wirelessly powered optoelectronic device for metronomic photodynamic cancer therapy. Nat Biomed Eng. 3, 27–36 (2019).10.1038/s41551-018-0261-7 ↗
54. Tsang, W. M. et al. Flexible split-ring electrode for insect flight biasing using multisite neural stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 57, 1757–1764 (2010).10.1109/TBME.2010.2041778 ↗