Preparation of mycelium paper sheets and study on their adsorption properties
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract With the progression of society, aquatic pollution has intensified, prompting a search for greener materials for wastewater treatment. Here, we present a mycelium-based paper developed via alkaline deacetylation of fungal mycelial fibers to chitosan, followed by vacuum filtration, and reinforcement with long plant fibers to enhance mechanical performance. The resulting mycelium–paper composite exhibits a highly dense structure, with very low air permeability (0.42 mL/min), tensile strength of approximately 14 MPa, and tear resistance up to 1,384 mN. In filtration tests, a single pass of 30 mg/L Cu 2+ solution yielded a removal efficiency of 98 %, corresponding to an adsorption capacity of 8.75 mg/g; for methylene blue dye, the adsorption capacity was 7.42 mg/g. Compared to conventional cellulose-based powder adsorbents, which often suffer from material loss and require post-treatment, the mycelial paper can be formed directly into membrane-like filters, simplifying handling. Furthermore, this mycelial membrane displayed strong adsorption across various heavy metal ions and dyes, underscoring its significant potential for sustainable water purification.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Plant and Biological Electrophysiology Studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
College of Light Industry Science and Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510641 , China
Engineer State Key Lab of Pulp and Paper Engineering , 26467 South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
References (34)
Show source-provided references
1. Ayodeji, A., Japareng, L., Kumar, A.M., and Santhosh, P. (2023). Fungal mycelium as leather alternative: a sustainable biogenic material for the fashion industry. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 38: e00724, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2023.e00724.10.1016/j.susmat.2023.e00724 ↗
2. Cai, X.A., Hong, R.J., and Qian, J. (2008). Determination of trace iron in ceramic materials by phenanthroline spectrophotometry. J. Jingdezhen Coll. 23: 1–2.
3. Chebotok, E.N., Novikov, V.Y., and Konovalova, I.N. (2006). Depolymerization of chitin and chitosan during base deacetylation. Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 79: 1162–1166, https://doi.org/10.1134/s1070427206070238.10.1134/S1070427206070238 ↗
4. Ellie, W., Katarzyna, C., and Laura, G. (2023). Correction: life cycle assessment of MycoWorks’ Reishi™: the first low-carbon and biodegradable alternative leather. Environ. Sci. Europe 35.10.1186/s12302-023-00741-4 ↗
5. Gandia, A., van den Brandhof, J.G., Appels, F.V.W., and Jones, M.P. (2021). Flexible fungal materials: shaping the future. Trends Biotechnol. 39: 1321–1331, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.03.002.10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.03.002 ↗
6. Gollakota, A.R.K., Subbaiah, M.V., Singh, A., Shu, C.M., Sarangi, P.K., and Wen, J.C. (2025). Adsorption of methylene blue from aqueous solution using chitosan polymer-impregnated Tricholoma matsutake fungal biomass. J. Mol. Liq. 426: 127305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2025.127305.10.1016/j.molliq.2025.127305 ↗
7. Huang, Q.H., Yao, S., Wei, Z.Y. (2021). Analysis of hydrophobin gene expression in aerial mycelium-deficient mutants of Flammulina velutipes. Acta Edulis Fungi. 28: 1–10.
8. Janesch, J., Jones, M., Bacher, M., Kontturi, E., Bismarck, A., and Mautner, A. (2020). Mushroom-derived chitosan-glucan nanopaper filters for the treatment of water. React. Funct. Polym. 146: 104439, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2019.104428.10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2019.104428 ↗
9. Jeong, S., Kim, T.-H., and Kim, C.-H. (2011). Shrinkage, wrinkling and ablation of burning cloth and paper. The Visual Comput. 27: 417–427, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-011-0575-x.10.1007/s00371-011-0575-x ↗
10. Ji, Y.H. and Wang, X.W. (2022). Purification performance of modified polyacrylonitrile fiber-activated carbon fiber filter for heavy metal ions. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30: 23372–23385, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23833-9.10.1007/s11356-022-23833-9 ↗
11. Jian, S.J., Liu, J.Y., and Wu, J.L. (2025). Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked chitosan microspheres encapsulating La(OH)3 by electrospraying for efficient remediation of fluoride ions. Chem. Eng. J.: 512.10.1016/j.cej.2025.162470 ↗
12. Jiang, S.T., Tang, X.Y., Liu, H.Y., Fang, J., Jin, Z., and Liu, M. (2025). Co-Cu dual active sites for synergistic electrochemical nitrate reduction to ammonia. J. Hazard. Mater. 492: 138266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138266.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138266 ↗
13. Jones, M., Bhat, T., Kandare, E., Thomas, A., Joseph, P., and Dekiwadia, C. (2018). Thermal degradation and fire properties of fungal mycelium and mycelium-biomass composite materials. Sci. Rep. 8: 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36032-9.10.1038/s41598-018-36032-9 ↗
14. Jones, M., Mautner, A., Luenco, S., Bismarck, A., and John, S. (2020). Engineered mycelium composite construction materials from fungal biorefineries: a critical review. Mater. Des. 187: 108444, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108397.10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108397 ↗
15. Khamrai, M., Banerjee, S.L., and Kundu, P.P. (2018). A sustainable production method of mycelium biomass using an isolated fungal strain Phanerochaete chrysosporium (accession no: KY593186): its exploitation in wound healing patch formation. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 16: 548–557, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2018.09.013.10.1016/j.bcab.2018.09.013 ↗
16. Ledesma-Durán, A., Hernández, S.I., and Santamaría-Holek, I. (2017). Effect of surface diffusion on adsorption–desorption and catalytic kinetics in irregular pores. I. Local kinetics. The J. Phys. Chem. C 121: 14544–14556, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b03652.10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b03652 ↗
17. Ma, A.M., Shan, L.J., and Du, Z.P. (2007). Isolation, purification, and interfacial self-assembly properties of hydrophobin from Pleurotus ostreatus. Mycosystema 26: 557–564.
18. Mishra, K., Siwal, S.S., Sithole, T., Singh, N., Hart, P., and Thakur, V.K. (2024). Biorenewable materials for water remediation: the central role of cellulose in achieving sustainability. J. Bioresour. Bioprod. 9: 253–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobab.2023.12.002.10.1016/j.jobab.2023.12.002 ↗
19. Ouchtak, H., El Haouti, R., El Guerdaoui, A., Haounati, R., Amaterz, E., and Addi, A.A. (2020). Experimental and molecular dynamics simulation study on the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye on magnetic montmorillonite composite γ-Fe2O3@Mt. J. Mol. Liq. 309: 113142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113142.10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113142 ↗
20. Peng, J.J. (2022). Drying and anti-wrinkling research of water-soaked paper archives, Master’s thesis. Kunming, China, Yunnan University.
21. Peng, K., Fang, P.F., and He, C.Q. (2018). Effect of alkali treatment on Manila hemp fiber structure and electroacoustic properties of paper diaphragms. Funct. Mater. 49: 8068–8074.
22. Santana Cadaval, T.R., Camara, A.S., Dotto, G.L., and Pinto, L.A.D.A. (2013). Adsorption of Cr (VI) by chitosan with different deacetylation degrees. Desalination and Water Treat. 51: 7690–7699, https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.778797.10.1080/19443994.2013.778797 ↗
23. Sun, D.Z., Sun, Y., Qin, Z.B. (2019). Improvement of copper reagent spectrophotometry for determining copper ion concentration in solution. Chem. Eng. 33: 70–73+40.
24. Tian, Y. and Liu, Y. (2018). Research progress on preparation of chitosan-based adsorbents and their application in removing heavy metals from water. Marine Sci. 42: 167–176.
25. Varela, C.F., Moreno-Aldana, L.C., and AgáMEZ-Pertuz, Y.Y. (2024). Adsorption of pharmaceutical pollutants on ZnCl2-activated biochar from corn cob: efficiency, selectivity and mechanism. J. Bioresour. Bioprod. 9: 58–73.10.1016/j.jobab.2023.10.003 ↗
26. Wang, J.N., Shen, Z.G., and Li, L. (2023). Structural evolution of PAN fibers under different conditions during dry densification. Chem. Fiber & Textile Technol. 52: 10–15.
27. Wang, Y.T. (2023). Fermentation preparation of fungal mycelium materials and their application in vegan leather, Master’s thesis. Kunming, China, Jiangnan University.
28. Yang, H.Z., Zhang, H., Qiu, H.Z., Anning, D.K., Li, M., and Wang, Y. (2021). Effects of C/N ratio on lignocellulose degradation and enzyme activities in aerobic composting. Horticulturae 7: 482, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7110482.10.3390/horticulturae7110482 ↗
29. Zhang, S.K., Chen, C.X., Duan, C., Hu, H., Li, H., and Li, J. (2018). Regenerated cellulose by the Lyocell process, a brief review of the process and properties. BioResources 13: 4577–4592, https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.13.2.zhang.10.15376/biores.13.2.Zhang ↗
30. Zhang, D.J., Fang, Z.Q., and Liu, Y. (2019). Study on tear resistance of PET fiber-reinforced nanocellulose films. Paper Sci. Technol. 38: 21–26.
31. Zhang, J. (2020). Determination of lead content in soil by xylenol orange spectrophotometry. Chem. Eng. Design Commun. 46: 263+271.
32. Zhu, Y.Q., Duan, G.G., and Wu, W.J. (2025). Ultrafast and energy-efficient flowthrough capture of antibiotics through a reusable MOF@wood membrane adsorbent. J. Membrane Sci.: 714.10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123411 ↗
33. Zhu, Y.Q., Liu, Y.B., Xue, S., Yang, H., Han, X., and Zhang, C. (2025). Melamine sponge loaded anionic covalent organic framework by sodium alginate cross-linking for selective dye removal with high adsorption capacity and reusability. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 313: 144358, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.144358.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.144358 ↗
34. Zin, M.I.M., Jimat, D.N., and Nawawi, W.M.F.W. (2022). Physicochemical properties of fungal chitin nanopaper from shiitake (L. edodes), enoki (F. velutipes), and oyster mushrooms (P. ostreatus). Carbohydr. Polym. 281: 119030.10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.119038 ↗