Advancing bone and cartilage regeneration with three-dimensional-printed piezoelectric biomaterials: Current progress and future outlook

Bone and cartilage defects resulting from trauma, degenerative diseases, or congenital malformations remain a significant clinical challenge due to the limited intrinsic healing capacity of these tissues, often leading to unsatisfactory outcomes. Piezoelectric biomaterials, which are capable of generating localized electrical signals under mechanical stimulation, have attracted considerable attention as they could mimic the electromechanical microenvironment of native tissues and modulate key cellular processes. However, conventional fabrication strategies have usually failed to meet the personalized requirements of bone and cartilage regeneration. Three-dimensional (3D) printing offers powerful tools for producing patient-specific scaffolds with complex architectures and controlled functionality. In this review, we firstly introduce the piezoelectric properties of the natural bone and cartilage tissue, and then discuss the characteristics of piezoelectric materials in regenerative medicine, with particular emphasis on the advantages and limitations of using 3D printing techniques in the fabrication of the piezoelectric biomaterials. Finally, we summarize the recent advances in 3D-printed piezoelectric scaffolds for bone and cartilage regeneration. Consequently, this review highlights the significant potential and practical value of 3D-printed piezoelectric scaffolds as the next generation of osteochondral implants.