Ice-microsphere templating to produce highly porous nanocomposite PLA matrix scaffolds with pores selectively lined by bacterial cellulose nano-whiskers

The production of 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering with provision of a controlled nano-topography remains a significant challenge. Here we have combined an ice-microsphere templating technique with thermally induced phase separation, and by taking advantage of interactions between hydrophilic and hydrophobic phases, lined the pore walls with bacterial cellulose nano-whiskers. The cryogenic technique we have developed not only allows the decoration of the pore walls of 3D porous forms with nano-whiskers but also enables the pore structure, interconnects and surface area to be controlled. Moreover our novel combined solvent extraction and ice sublimation route presented herein preserves the frozen-in structure.