Improving Hydrophobicity and Water Vapor Barrier Properties in Paper Using Cellulose Nanofiber-Stabilized Cocoa Butter and PLA Emulsions
Source abstract
Abstract
This study explores the use of cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-stabilized Pickering emulsions for paper coatings, focusing on their rheological properties and effects on hydrophilicity and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). Two types of Pickering emulsions, oil-in-water (O/W), were stabilized with 1 wt% CNF extracted from fique by-products. The oily phases of the emulsions were composed of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and cocoa butter (CB). The physical stability, viscosity, and viscoelasticity of the emulsions were characterized. The emulsions were applied to the surfaces of Bond and Kraft papers using the rod-coating method. The coating process involved first applying a layer of the PLA emulsion followed by a layer of the CB emulsion. The coated papers were then evaluated by FE-SEM, contact angle, adhesion work, and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). The results indicated that the coatings effectively produced a slightly hydrophobic surface on the papers, with contact angles approaching 90°. Initially, Kraft paper exhibited a WVTR value of 29.20 ± 1.13 g/m2·h, which significantly decreased to 7.06 ± 2.80 g/m2·h after coating, representing a reduction of 75.82%. Similarly, natural Bond paper showed a WVTR value of 30.56 ± 0.34 g/m2·h, which decreased to 14.37 ± 5.91 g/m2·h after coating, indicating a reduction of 47.02%. These findings demonstrate the potential of CNF-stabilized Pickering emulsions for enhancing the performance of paper coatings in terms of hydrophobicity and moisture barrier properties. The approach of this study aligns with global sustainability goals in packaging materials combining the use of PLA and CB to develop a waterborne coating to enhance the moisture barrier properties, demonstrated by a substantial reduction in water vapor transmission rates, and an improved hydrophobicity of coated papers.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Cellulose Research Studies · Electrospun Nanofibers in Biomedical Applications · Nanocomposite Films for Food Packaging
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Grupo Investigaciones Agroindustriales—GRAIN, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellin 050004, Colombia
Funding
CIDI-UPB
References (81)
Show source-provided references
1. Raheem, D. (2016). Use and Production of Paper Packaging for Food. Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier.10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.03202-9 ↗
2. Park, J.M. (2012). Paper and paperboard packaging. Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering—4 Volume Set, Elsevier.
3. Bio-based active food packaging materials: Sustainable alternative to conventional petrochemical-based packaging materials10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109625 ↗
4. Effects of hydrophobic polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane coating on water vapour barrier and water resistance properties of paperboard10.1007/s10971-013-3208-1 ↗
5. Perspectives on sustainable food packaging:– is bio-based plastics a solution?10.1016/j.tifs.2021.03.049 ↗
6. Challenges and new opportunities on barrier performance of biodegradable polymers for sustainable packaging10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2021.101395 ↗
7. Advantages of nanotechnology developments in active food packaging10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111023 ↗
8. Improvement of polyvinyl alcohol properties by adding nanocrystalline cellulose isolated from banana pseudostems10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.090 ↗
9. Novel nanofibrillated cellulose/chitosan nanoparticles nanocomposites films and their use for paper coating10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.12.006 ↗
10. Cellulose nanofiber/carboxymethyl cellulose blends as an efficient coating to improve the structure and barrier properties of paperboard10.1007/s10570-017-1299-5 ↗
11. Carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanocrystals immobilized silver nanoparticles as an effective coating to improve barrier and antibacterial properties of paper for food packaging applications10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117156 ↗
12. Pérez Mejía, J.A. (1974). El Fique: Su Taxonomía, Cultivo y Tecnología, SIDALC.
13. Enhanced water vapour barrier and grease resistance of paper bilayer-coated with chitosan and beeswax10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.097 ↗
14. Hydrophobic-modified nano-cellulose fiber/PLA biodegradable composites for lowering water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of paper10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.049 ↗
15. Liu, J., Chen, X., and Wang, H. (2024). Fabrication of water/oil-resistant paper by nanocellulose stabilized Pickering emulsion and chitosan. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 275.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.133609 ↗
16. ZnO-PLA nanocomposite coated paper for antimicrobial packaging application10.1016/j.lwt.2016.12.024 ↗
17. Polylactides—Methods of synthesis and characterization10.1016/j.addr.2016.05.002 ↗
18. Recent progress in sustainable barrier paper coating for food packaging applications10.1016/j.porgcoat.2023.107566 ↗
19. Belletti, G., Buoso, S., Ricci, L., Guillem-Ortiz, A., Aragón-Gutiérrez, A., Bortolini, O., and Bertoldo, M. (2021). Preparations of Poly(lactic acid) Dispersions in Water for Coating Applications. Polymers, 13.10.3390/polym13162767 ↗
20. Carnauba wax-based composite films and coatings: Recent advancement in prolonging postharvest shelf-life of fruits and vegetables10.1016/j.tifs.2022.09.019 ↗
21. Pearly, C., Zhi, Q., Ashok, K., and Abdul, K. (2021). An Overview of Cocoa Butter: Novel Excipients for Oral Tablets. Int. J. Pharm. Res., 13.10.31838/ijpr/2021.13.01.373 ↗
22. O’loughlin, J., Doherty, D., Herward, B., McGleenan, C., Mahmud, M., Bhagabati, P., Boland, A.N., Freeland, B., Rochfort, K.D., and Kelleher, S.M. (2023). The Potential of Bio-Based Polylactic Acid (PLA) as an Alternative in Reusable Food Containers: A Review. Sustainability, 15.10.3390/su152115312 ↗
23. Cellulose microfibrils from banana rachis: Effect of alkaline treatments on structural and morphological features10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.024 ↗
24. Influence of combined mechanical treatments on the morphology and structure of cellulose nanofibrils: Thermal and mechanical properties of the resulting films10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.02.036 ↗
25. Kmetty, A., and Litauszki, K. (2020). Development of Poly (Lactide Acid) Foams with Thermally Expandable Microspheres. Polymers, 12.10.3390/polym12020463 ↗
26. Poly(lactic acid)/lignin blends prepared with the Pickering emulsion template method10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.12.001 ↗
27. Zhang, Z., Zhong, M., Xiang, H., Ding, Y., Wang, Y., Shi, Y., Yang, G., Tang, B., Tam, K.C., and Zhou, G. (2023). Antibacterial polylactic acid fabricated via Pickering emulsion approach with polyethyleneimine and polydopamine modified cellulose nanocrystals as emulsion stabilizers. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 253.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127263 ↗
28. Fabrication of PLA/CNC/CNT conductive composites for high electromagnetic interference shielding based on Pickering emulsions method10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105558 ↗
29. Kinetics of Crystallization in n-Hexadecane and Cocoa Butter Oil-in-Water Emulsions Accounting for Droplet Collision-Mediated Nucleation10.1006/jcis.2000.7174 ↗
30. Preparation of polylactic acid/TEMPO-oxidized bacterial cellulose nanocomposites for 3D printing via Pickering emulsion approach10.1016/j.coco.2019.10.004 ↗
31. Influence of EDTA and Citrate on Physicochemical Properties of Whey Protein-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions Containing CaCl210.1021/jf020489a ↗
32. (2020). Particle size analysis — Laser diffraction methods (Standard No. ISO Standard No. 13320:2020). Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/69111.html.
33. Frank, D.G., John, L.H., and Fred, B.P. (1994). The Lipid Handbook, Chapman & Hall Chemical Database. [2nd ed.]. Available online: https://books.google.com.co/books?id=m9J9pTDZEGEC.
34. Determining the complex refractive index of cellulose nanocrystals by combination of Beer-Lambert and immersion matching methods10.1016/j.jqsrt.2019.06.023 ↗
35. Simões, S., Sanchez, C.C., Santos, A.J., Figueira, D., Prista, C., and Raymundo, A. (2023). Impact of Grass Pea Sweet Miso Incorporation in Vegan Emulsions: Rheological, Nutritional and Bioactive Properties. Foods, 12.10.3390/foods12071362 ↗
36. Velásquez-Cock, J., Serpa, A.M., Gómez-Hoyos, C., Gañán, P., Romero-Sáez, M., Vélez, L.M., Correa-Hincapié, N., and Zuluaga, R. (2021). Influence of a Non-Ionic Surfactant in the Microstructure and Rheology of a Pickering Emulsion Stabilized by Cellulose Nanofibrils. Polymers, 13.10.3390/polym13213625 ↗
37. Fibrous packaging paper made of oil palm fiber with beeswax-chitosan solution to improve water resistance10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.114541 ↗
38. Cellulose nanofibril-reinforced biodegradable polymer composites obtained via a Pickering emulsion approach10.1007/s10570-017-1324-8 ↗
39. (2022). Standard Test Method for Measurement of the Surface Tension of Solid Coatings, Substrates and Pigments using Contact Angle Measurements (Standard No. ASTM D7490-08).
40. Characterisation of the work of adhesion of food grade coating materials on a maltodextrin model surface10.1016/j.cherd.2016.01.023 ↗
41. International Tables of the Surface Tension of Water10.1063/1.555688 ↗
42. (2013). Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials (Standard No. ASTM E96/E96M-10).
43. Dual Functions of TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibers in Oil-in-Water Emulsions: A Pickering Emulsifier and a Unique Dispersion Stabilizer10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01977 ↗
44. Stabilization of Pickering emulsions via synergistic interfacial interactions between cellulose nanofibrils and nanocrystals10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133603 ↗
45. Hoyos, C.G., Botero, L.D., Flórez-Caro, A., Velásquez-Cock, J.A., and Zuluaga, R. (2023). Nanocellulose from Cocoa Shell in Pickering Emulsions of Cocoa Butter in Water: Effect of Isolation and Concentration on Its Stability and Rheological Properties. Polymers, 15.10.3390/polym15204157 ↗
46. Double stabilization mechanism of O/W Pickering emulsions using cationic nanofibrillated cellulose10.1016/j.jcis.2020.04.001 ↗
47. Effect of process and formulation variables on the preparation of parenteral paclitaxel-loaded biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles: A co-surfactant study10.1016/j.ajps.2015.09.004 ↗
48. Roland, H.S., Katharina, L., and Daniel, C. (2013). Recent Advances in the Emulsion Solvent Evaporation Technique for the Preparation of Nanoparticles and Nanocapsules, Springer.
49. Cocoa shell: An industrial by-product for the preparation of suspensions of holocellulose nanofibers and fat10.1007/s10570-020-03222-6 ↗
50. Whitby, C.P., and Wanless, E.J. (2016). Controlling Pickering Emulsion Destabilisation: A Route to Fabricating New Materials by Phase Inversion. Materials, 9.10.3390/ma9080626 ↗
51. Structure of concentrated oil-in-water Pickering emulsions10.1039/c2sm26014j ↗
52. Flocculated flow of microfibrillated cellulose water suspensions: An imaging approach for characterisation of rheological behaviour10.1007/s10570-012-9661-0 ↗
53. Flocculation of microfibrillated cellulose in shear flow10.1007/s10570-012-9766-5 ↗
54. Rheological investigation of complex micro and nanofibrillated cellulose (MNFC) suspensions: Discussion of flow curves and gel stability10.32964/TJ15.6.405 ↗
55. Rheological properties of microfibrillar suspension of TEMPO-oxidized pulp10.1007/s10570-007-9184-2 ↗
56. Production of microfibrillated cellulose from unbleached kraft pulp of Kenaf and Scotch Pine and its effect on the properties of hardwood kraft: Microfibrillated cellulose paper10.1007/s10570-013-9998-z ↗
57. Cellulose nanofibers influence on properties and processing of paperboard coatings10.3183/npprj-2016-31-03-p511-520 ↗
58. Mezger, T. (2020). The Rheology Handbook, Walter de Gruyter GmbH.10.1515/9783748603702 ↗
59. Characterisations of oil-in-water Pickering emulsion stabilized hydrophobic phytoglycogen nanoparticles10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.05.003 ↗
60. Evaluation of rheological and optical properties plus stability of beverage cloud emulsions prepared with corn oil, gum rosin, and modified starch10.1002/fsn3.3115 ↗
61. Rheology and 3D printing characteristics of heat-inducible pea protein-carrageenan-glycyrrhizic acid emulsions as edible inks10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109347 ↗
62. Preparation of o/w emulsions stabilized by solid particles and their characterization by oscillatory rheology10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.03.009 ↗
63. Influence of green banana pulp on the rheological behaviour and chemical characteristics of emulsions (mayonnaises)10.1016/j.lwt.2007.07.009 ↗
64. Stephan, F.K., and Peter, M.S. (2012). Liquid Film Coating: Scientific Principles and Their Technological Implications, Springer Science & Business Media.
65. The viscoelastic interaction between dispersed and continuous phase of PCL/HA-PVA oil-in-water emulsion uncovers the theoretical and experimental basis for fiber formation during emulsion electrospinning10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2017.09.004 ↗
66. Transparent and strong polymer nanocomposites generated from Pickering emulsion gels stabilized by cellulose nanofibrils10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115202 ↗
67. Novel Nanocellulose/Polymer Composite Aerogel as Solid-State Fluorescence Probe by Pickering Emulsion Route10.1002/mame.202000467 ↗
68. Michael, A.R. (2017). Crystallization of Fats and Fatty Acids in Edible Oils and Structure Determination. Fatty Acids, Elsevier. Chemistry, Synthesis, and Applications.
69. Kafirin nanoparticles-stabilized Pickering emulsions: Microstructure and rheological behavior10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.09.008 ↗
70. Characterization of Pickering emulsion gels stabilized by zein/gum arabic complex colloidal nanoparticles10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.07.040 ↗
71. Chitosan hydrochloride/carboxymethyl starch complex nanogels as novel Pickering stabilizers: Physical stability and rheological properties10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.02.021 ↗
72. Rheology of nanocellulose-rich aqueous suspensions: A Review10.15376/biores.12.4.Hubbe ↗
73. Influence of chemical surface modification of cellulose nanowhiskers on thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties of poly(lactide) based bionanocomposites10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2013.07.017 ↗
74. Studies on Semi-crystalline Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) as a Hydrophobic Coating Material on Kraft Paper for Imparting Barrier Properties in Coated Abrasive Applications10.1016/j.porgcoat.2020.105682 ↗
75. Inthamat, P., Karbowiak, T., Tongdeesoontorn, W., and Siripatrawan, U. (2024). Biodegradable active coating from chitosan/astaxanthin crosslinked with genipin to improve water resistance, moisture and oxygen barrier and mechanical properties of Kraft paper. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 254.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127816 ↗
76. Mechanical, morphological and structural properties of cellulose nanofibers reinforced epoxy composites10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.029 ↗
77. Influence of coating grammage on the utility properties of coated papers
78. Application of cellulose nanofibril (CNF) as coating on paperboard at moderate solids content and high coating speed using blade coater10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.05.024 ↗
79. Effect of Pulping, Bleaching and Refining Process on Fibers for Paper Making—A Review
80. Strength and barrier properties of MFC films10.1007/s10570-008-9244-2 ↗
81. Prediction and Determination of Water Uptake in Packaged Yerba Mate10.1177/1082013204041877 ↗